Author: admin

• Sapota (Manilkara achras) is a tropical fruit introduced from Central America, widely cultivated in India.
• Commonly known as sapodilla or chiku, it belongs to the family Sapotaceae.
• Fruits are recommended for patients with tuberculosis and children with primary complex due to their nutritional value.
• Offers high economic returns, even under marginal land and low-input conditions.

• Grows well from sea level up to 1200 m altitude, preferring warm, moist climates.
• Optimal temperature range: 11°C to 34°C; annual rainfall: 1250–2500 mm.
• Best suited to coastal climates but adaptable to both dry and humid regions.
• Prefers deep, well-drained, porous soils such as alluvium, sandy loams, red laterites, and medium black soils.
• Tolerates moderate soil and irrigation water salinity.

• Propagation is mainly through grafting onto Manilkara hexandra (Pala) rootstock.
• Planting season: June to December; recommended spacing: 8 x 8 m (standard), 8 x 4 m (high density).
• Pits of 1 m³ are prepared and filled with topsoil, 10 kg FYM, 1 kg neem cake, and 100 g lindane (1.3%).
• Grafts are planted with the graft union at least 15 cm above ground and staked for support.

• Immediate and regular irrigation is crucial after planting; water copiously post-planting, then every 10 days until establishment.
• Annual application of FYM and NPK fertilizers, increasing with tree age; mature trees (6th year onwards) require 50 kg FYM, 1 kg N, 1 kg P, and 1.5 kg K per tree.
• Fertilizers should be applied in September–October, 45 cm from the trunk, and incorporated into the soil up to the leaf drip line.

• Regular removal of rootstock sprouts, water shoots, criss-cross, and lower branches is essential for healthy growth.
• Legumes and short-duration vegetable crops can be intercropped during the pre-bearing stage to improve soil fertility and income.

• Leaf webber: Controlled by spraying phosalone at 2 ml/liter.
• Hairy caterpillars: Managed with endosulfan at 2 ml/liter (note: endosulfan use is restricted in many countries; safer alternatives are recommended).
• Budworm: Controlled by phosalone spray at 2 ml/liter.
• Sooty mould: Treated by spraying a 5% solution of boiled maida or starch (1 kg in 20 liters water).

• Fruits are ready for harvest when dull brown and the skin beneath is lighter in color; mature fruits lose brown scaly material and have reduced latex.
• Harvesting is done by hand picking; main seasons are February–June and September–October.
• Ripening is accelerated by placing fruits in airtight chambers with 5000 ppm Ethrel and 10 g NaOH pellets.
• Yield starts from the third year, reaching 20–25 t/ha/year in mature orchards.

• Papaya (Carica papaya L.) belongs to the family Caricaceae and has a chromosome number of 2n=18.
• Native to Tropical America, papaya was introduced to India in the 18th century and is now widely cultivated in tropical and subtropical regions.
• Major producing states in India include Bihar, Assam, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, and Andhra Pradesh, with a cultivation area of approximately 34,000 ha.
• Papaya is valued for its high vitamin A content (2000 IU/100g) and is consumed fresh or processed into products like jam, jelly, and nectar.
• The fruit is a significant source of the proteolytic enzyme papain, which has diverse applications in medicine and industry.

• Papaya plants exhibit dioecious, hermaphrodite, and gynodioecious sex forms, influencing fruit set and orchard management.
• Dioecious types have separate male and female plants, while hermaphrodite and gynodioecious types bear both flower types on the same plant.
• Male flowers are borne on long panicles; female flowers are solitary and larger, with a prominent ovary.
• Fruit morphology varies: globular from female flowers and elongated from bisexual flowers.
• Sex expression is influenced by environmental factors (temperature, day length) and growth regulators (e.g., GA, ethrel, SADH, phosphon-D).

• Papaya thrives best in deep, well-drained loamy soils with uniform texture up to 1.8 m depth.
• Good drainage is essential; even brief water stagnation can cause collar-rot disease.
• Optimal temperature range is 35–38°C; papaya is sensitive to frost and extreme heat.
• Windbreaks are recommended in areas prone to strong winds to prevent tree damage.
• Regions with mild temperatures and low incidence of viral diseases, such as Tamil Nadu, are ideal for year-round cultivation.

• Papaya is primarily propagated by seeds, which are collected from mature, healthy fruits and cleaned before sowing.
• Seedlings are raised in nursery beds or polythene bags; the latter method produces more vigorous plants.
• For dioecious varieties, 2–3 seedlings per pit are planted to ensure sufficient female plants; excess males are removed after sex identification.
• Planting is done in pits of 45 x 45 x 45 cm at 1.8 x 1.8 m spacing, accommodating about 3000 plants/ha.
• The best planting time coincides with the onset of the South-West monsoon or during mild weather periods.

• Papaya requires regular and balanced fertilization due to its rapid growth and continuous fruiting habit.
• Recommended nutrient application includes 10 kg FYM/plant as basal and 50 g each of N, P, and K per plant bimonthly, or 250 g N, 250 g P2O5, and 500 g K2O per plant/year in split doses.
• Peak nutrient uptake occurs between flowering and harvesting stages.
• Regular irrigation is essential, typically every 8–10 days, but waterlogging must be avoided to prevent root diseases.
• Intercropping with short-duration vegetables is possible during the pre-bearing stage.

• Fruits mature 12–14 months after planting, with continuous cropping possible for up to 2 years.
• Harvesting is done when fruits change from green to yellowish-green, using careful hand picking to avoid damage.
• Average yield per tree ranges from 50 to 100 fruits; high-yielding varieties can produce 100–160 t/ha.
• Fruits for local markets are stored in straw layers; for distant transport, they are packed in straw-lined bamboo baskets.
• Yield and fruit quality depend on the proportion of female and hermaphrodite trees in the orchard.

• Papain is a proteolytic enzyme extracted from the latex of unripe, fully developed green papaya fruits.
• Latex is collected by making shallow incisions on the fruit surface, preferably using non-metallic tools to prevent discoloration.
• Collected latex is sun-dried or artificially dried at 50–55°C, then powdered and stored in airtight containers.
• Papain is used in medicine (digestive aid, ulcer treatment), food industry (meat tenderizer, beer clarification), textiles, cosmetics, and other industrial applications.
• Factors affecting papain yield include fruit size, maturity, and varietal characteristics; potassium metabisulphite may be added to improve quality and shelf life.

• Papaya is susceptible to several diseases, notably collar-rot, mosaic virus, and leaf curl virus, especially in poorly drained or virus-prone areas.
• Good field sanitation, use of disease-free seeds, and resistant varieties are key preventive measures.
• Regular weeding and removal of infected plants help reduce disease incidence.
• Common pests include fruit flies, aphids, and red spider mites; integrated pest management strategies are recommended.
• Windbreaks and proper irrigation management also contribute to reducing pest and disease pressure.

• Belongs to family Pyralidae, order Lepidoptera; serious pest of brinjal.
• Adult moth is medium-sized with whitish forewings marked by black and brown patches; caterpillar is small and light pink.
• Eggs (up to 250) are laid singly on leaves, shoots, flower buds, or fruits; larval period lasts 12–15 days in summer, 22 days in winter.
• Larvae bore into shoots and fruits, causing withering, drying, and fruit damage (up to 21% loss); infested fruits show circular holes plugged with excreta.
• Management includes removal of infested plant parts, use of larval parasitoids (Microbracon greeni), pheromone traps (5/ha), and insecticidal sprays (carbaryl, profenofos, cypermethrin).

• Member of family Coccinellidae, order Coleoptera; also known as spotted leaf beetle or hadda beetle.
• Adults are small, round to oblong, brick red or pinkish with 12–28 black dots; grubs are yellowish, spiny, and broad at the front.
• Eggs laid on leaf undersides; larval period 10–35 days, pupal period 3–6 days; total life cycle 17–50 days.
• Both grubs and adults feed on leaf chlorophyll, creating skeletonized patches and reducing photosynthetic area.
• Control by hand-picking, destruction of egg masses, use of parasitoids (Tetrastichus ovularum, Uga menoni), and foliar insecticides (DDVP, carbaryl, profenofos, quinalphos).

• Family Cicadellidae, order Hemiptera; small, light brown adults.
• Feeds on plant sap, causing leaf size reduction, shortened petioles, bushy growth, and stunted plants.
• Can induce ‘little leaf’ disease, leading to conversion of floral parts into leafy structures and rare fruiting.
• Management includes removal and destruction of infected plants, seedling dip in carbofuran, and spraying with dimethoate.

• Family Aleurodidae, order Hemiptera; adults have yellowish bodies, red eyes, and white or greenish wings.
• Common and serious pest of brinjal and other solanaceous crops; nymphs are pale yellow and sluggish.
• Life cycle completed in 13–122 days; up to 10–12 generations per year.
• Nymphs and adults suck sap, causing leaf withering, browning, and flower shedding; excrete honeydew leading to sooty mould and reduced photosynthesis.
• Control via insecticidal sprays (dimethoate, malathion, methyl demeton, monocrotophos).

• Family Aphididae, order Hemiptera; nymphs and adults are small, soft-bodied insects.
• Suck sap from leaves, causing yellowing, deformation, and drying of plants.
• Honeydew secretion promotes sooty mould growth, further reducing photosynthetic efficiency.
• Management includes seed treatment with imidacloprid or thiamethoxam, and use of yellow sticky traps.

• Family Tingidae, order Hemiptera; nymphs and adults feed on leaf sap.
• Infestation leads to yellowing, withering, and leaves covered with exuviae and excreta, especially in summer crops.
• Control by spraying with DDVP or dusting with carbaryl.

• Family Pyralidae, order Lepidoptera; caterpillars fold leaves from tip upwards and feed within the fold.
• Infested leaves wither and dry; larvae are always found inside the leaf fold.
• Management includes removal and destruction of infested leaves, and application of carbaryl dust or spray.

• Family Tetranychidae, order Acarina; tiny pests that suck cell sap from leaves.
• Infestation causes yellowing and withering of leaves, reducing plant vigor.
• Control measures include spraying with sulphur, dicofol, or abamectin, and dusting with sulphur.

• Potato is susceptible to various fungal and viral diseases.
• Major diseases include early blight, late blight, black scurf, leaf roll, and mosaic viruses.
• Effective management requires understanding pathogen biology and disease cycles.

• Small, dark lesions with concentric rings (bull’s eye) on older leaves.
• Yellowing tissue around spots; severe cases cause foliage death.
• Stem lesions may girdle plants near soil line.

Etiology:

• Septate, branched, light brown mycelium; conidia borne in chains, obclavate, muriform.

Disease Cycle:

• Primary infection from mycelium/conidia in plant debris.
• Secondary spread by wind, water, or rain splash.

Management:

• Use disease-free seed and crop rotation.
• Remove and destroy infected debris.
• Fungicide sprays: Mancozeb 0.25%, Chlorothalonil 0.2%, or Zineb 0.25% at intervals.

• Water-soaked, dark lesions on lower leaves, expanding rapidly in cool, moist weather.
• Lesions not limited by veins; entire leaves may die quickly.
• Tubers show irregular, sunken, brown to purplish areas with granular rot beneath skin.

Etiology:

• Coenocytic, hyaline, branched mycelium; sporangia are oval/pear-shaped, germinate by zoospores.

Disease Cycle:

• Primary infection from infected tubers and soil.
• Airborne sporangia cause secondary spread.

Management:

• Protective fungicide sprays (Mancozeb/Zineb 0.2%).
• Use resistant varieties (e.g., Kufri Naveen, Kufri Jeevan).
• Destroy foliage before harvest; avoid tuber injury during harvest.

• Necrosis at sprout tips, sunken lesions on stolons, roots, stems.
• Black sclerotia (scurf) on tuber surface.
• Stunted plants, purplish leaves, deformed tubers.

Etiology:

• Basidiomycete fungus; produces sclerotia, rarely basidiospores.
• Mycelium is septate, branched; sclerotia are dark brown to black, irregular.

Disease Cycle:

• Primary infection from sclerotia in soil.
• Seedlings from infected soil spread disease.

Management:

• Plant only disease-free seed tubers.
• Seed treatment with fungicides (e.g., mercuric chloride; safer alternatives preferred).
• Crop rotation and shallow planting reduce severity.

• Upward rolling of young leaves; leaves become dry, thick, and brittle.
• Plants are stunted, erect, light green; tubers reduced in size and number.
• Net necrosis may develop inside tubers.

Transmission:

• Spread by aphids (Myzus persicae, Aphis gossypii) and infected tubers.

Management:

• Use disease-free, certified seed tubers.
• Rogue and bury diseased plants.
• Control aphids with insecticides (e.g., Phorate 10G, 10 kg/ha).

• Light yellow mottling, slight crinkling, interveinal necrosis, mild stunting.

Severe Mosaic (Potato virus Y – PVY):
Symptoms:

• Chlorotic and necrotic streaks, leaf drop, interveinal and stem necrosis, stunting, leaf rugosity.

Rugose/Common Mosaic (PVX & PVY):
Symptoms:

• Black streaks on veins/stems, shriveled and mottled leaves, dwarfing, reduced tuber size.

Transmission:

• PVX: Mechanical (sap), seed, tools, contact.
• PVY: Aphids (Myzus persicae, Aphis gossypii), infected tubers.

Management:

• Use disease-free, certified seed tubers.
• Grow resistant varieties (e.g., Chippewa, Irish Cobbler).
• Rogue diseased plants; control aphids (Phorate 10G, 10 kg/ha).
• Early harvesting and hygiene reduce spread.

• Use certified, disease-free seed tubers for all plantings.
• Practice crop rotation and field sanitation to reduce inoculum.
• Apply recommended fungicides and insecticides judiciously.
• Grow resistant varieties where available.
• Monitor fields regularly for early detection and management.

• Maturity indices are signs or measurements indicating readiness for harvest.
• Correct harvest stage ensures optimal quality, shelf life, and market value.
• Improper timing leads to poor flavor, texture, and increased post-harvest losses.
• India loses 25–30% of produce due to improper harvest timing.

• Maturity: Stage when fruit/vegetable is fully developed and can ripen normally.
• Ripening: Qualitative changes after maturity making produce edible.
• Harvesting at correct maturity is crucial for quality and storage.

• Physiological maturity: End of development; ability to ripen after harvest (mainly for fruits).
• Horticultural (Commercial) maturity: Stage preferred by consumers; depends on intended use.
• Climacteric fruits: Harvest at mature but unripe stage.
• Non-climacteric fruits: Harvest at ripe stage.

• Ensure sensory and nutritional quality.
• Provide adequate shelf life and facilitate marketing.
• Help standardize harvest timing and improve productivity.
• Balance between shelf life and eating quality.

1. Subjective (Qualitative): Color, size, shape, firmness, aroma, sound.
2. Objective (Quantitative): TSS, acidity, starch content, oil content, firmness, dry matter, days after bloom, heat units, respiration, ethylene production.

• Size and shape: Final size/shape indicates maturity (e.g., mango cheeks, banana angularity).
• Color: Loss of green or development of characteristic color.
• Firmness: Softening indicates maturity (measured by penetrometer).
• Specific gravity: Increases with maturity; used for grading.

• Total Soluble Solids (TSS): Measured by refractometer; indicates sugar content.
• Titratable acidity (TA): Determined by titration; used with TSS for sugar-acid ratio.
• Calendar date/days after full bloom: Useful where climate is stable.
• Heat units: Degree-days required for maturity.

• Respiration rate: Climacteric rise indicates harvest time in some fruits.
• Ethylene evolution: Peaks at maturity in climacteric fruits.
• Volatile production: Specific aroma compounds signal maturity (e.g., apple, banana).

• Simple, easy, and inexpensive to use.
• Objective and related to quality and storage life.
• Show progressive change with maturity.
• Allow prediction from year to year.

• Affected by soil, nutrition, irrigation, climate, and variety.
• Position on plant and cultural practices influence indices.
• Visual indices may mislead due to environmental variation.

• Peel color change on shoulders.
• Tapka method: natural fruit drop.
• Specific gravity: 1.01–1.02.
• Days from fruit set to maturity.

Banana

• Disappearance of angularity; round fingers.
• Pulp:peel ratio 1.2–1.6; pH 5.2–5.6.
• Harvest at 75–80% maturity for distant markets.

Guava

• Color change from dark to light green.
• Specific gravity ~1.0.
• 17–20 weeks from fruit set to maturity.

• TSS: 16–24% (variety-dependent).
• Peel color, pulp texture, flavor, easy berry separation.

Papaya

• Skin color change at apex or yellow streaks.
• Latex becomes watery.

Pineapple

• 25% surface yellow for local market.
• Flattened eyes, TSS:acid ratio 21–27.

Jackfruit

• Dull, hollow sound when tapped.
• Spines widely spaced, aromatic odor.

• Rind color change (species-specific).
• TSS:acid ratio (e.g., sweet orange 8.5–8.9).
• Minimum juice content standards.

Pomegranate

• 135–170 days after anthesis.
• Peel color change, hard rind, metallic sound.

Sapota

• Dull orange/potato color, minimal latex.
• Disappearance of brown scaly surface.

• TSS, color change, firmness, ease of separation.
• Iodine test for starch breakdown.

Strawberry

• 2/3 to 3/4 red color for local markets.

Peach/Plum

• Days from full bloom, size, firmness, color, sugar:acid ratio.

Ber, Date Palm, Litchi, Fig, Custard Apple, Aonla

• Color change, TSS, acid ratio, specific gravity, days after pollination, sound, texture, and aroma as indices.

• Physiological maturity: Maximum growth and development.
• Commercial maturity: Stage required by market; varies by crop and edible part.
• Harvest timing affects marketability, storage, and quality.

• Curds 4–8 in. diameter, compact, white, smooth.

Cabbage

• Heads hard and solid, uniform color.

Broccoli

• Dark green, compact head, before yellow flowers appear.

Brussels Sprouts

• Sprouts 1–1.5 in. diameter, firm.

• Harvested from mature green to fully red, depending on market.

Eggplant

• Glossy, purplish-black or white color, 6–8 in. diameter.

Beans

• Pods filled with seeds, green, not yellowing.

Okra

• Pods 3–5 in. long, tender.

• Bulbs 2–4 in. diameter, tops fall over and dry.

Peas

• Pods fully developed, seeds not more than half full size.

Pepper

• Firm, crisp, full-sized; color depends on cultivar.

Potato

• Harvest when plants yellow and die down; avoid sun exposure.

• Full size, firm, glossy rind, ground spot cream to orange.

Cucumber

• Bright deep green, 2–3 in. long, before yellowing.

Watermelon

• Dull sound when thumped, yellow ground spot, brown tendrils.

Muskmelon

• Stem slips easily, netting rounded, flesh color change.

• Roots 1 in. diameter, dark tops.

Turnip

• Roots 2–3 in. diameter, tops 3–5 in. long.

Radish

• Roots 1 in. diameter, shoulders visible, avoid over-maturity.

Spinach

• Leaves 4–6 in. long, harvested at base.

• Maturity indices are essential for optimal harvest timing and quality.
• Indices vary by crop, variety, and intended use.
• Combination of visual, physical, chemical, and physiological indices is best.
• Proper harvest reduces losses and improves marketability.