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• Grapes (Vitis vinifera) are a major fruit crop grown globally for fresh consumption, raisins, and wine.
• Optimal growth requires balanced nutrition, pest and disease management, and proper cultural practices.
• Understanding disorders and their management is crucial for high yield and quality.

• Common deficiencies: Nitrogen, Potassium, Magnesium, Zinc, Boron, Iron.
• Symptoms include chlorosis, poor fruit set, stunted growth, and leaf necrosis.
• Soil and leaf analysis help diagnose nutrient disorders.

• Apply recommended fertilizers based on soil and tissue analysis.
• Use foliar sprays for micronutrient deficiencies (e.g., ZnSO4 for zinc, Fe-EDTA for iron).
• Incorporate organic manures and green manures to improve soil health.
• Maintain proper irrigation to aid nutrient uptake.

• Gibberellic acid (GA3) used to increase berry size and improve cluster looseness.
• Apply 25 ppm GA3 at calyptra fall and pepper stages for seedless varieties.
• Potassium chloride (0.2%) sprayed at 20 and 40 days after berry set for uniform ripening.

• Berry cracking: Caused by irregular watering or boron deficiency.
• Uneven ripening: Linked to potassium deficiency or hormonal imbalance.
• Poor fruit set: Often due to zinc or boron deficiency.

• Apply carbofuran 60 g/vine one week before pruning; irrigate well.
• Use neem cake 200 g/vine and Pseudomonas fluorescens for biocontrol.

Flea Beetles

• Spray phosalone 2 ml/l after pruning; repeat 2–3 times as needed.

Thrips

• Spray dimethoate 2 ml/l for control.

Mealy Bug

• Spray monocrotophos 2 ml/l; use sticky bands and natural predators for IPM.

• Caused by Uncinula necator.
• Symptoms: White powdery growth on leaves, shoots, and berries.
• Management: Sulphur dusting @ 6–12 kg/ha; use resistant varieties.

Downy Mildew

• Caused by Plasmopara viticola.
• Symptoms: Yellowish oil spots on leaves, white downy growth on lower surface.
• Management: Spray 1% Bordeaux mixture; ensure good air circulation.

• Harvest only after full ripening for best quality.
• Heat requirement: 2900–3600 degree days for most varieties.
• Average yields: Seedless – 15 t/ha/yr; Muscat – 30 t/ha/yr; Pachadraksha – 40 t/ha/yr; Anab-e-Shahi/Arka hybrids – 20 t/ha/yr.
• Room temperature storage: Up to 7 days; cold storage (-2 to -1.5°C): 40–45 days.

• Raisins are a major by-product in grape-growing regions.
• Grapes with 17° Brix and above are suitable; 20–23° Brix is standard for high-quality raisins.
• Proper drying and storage are essential to prevent spoilage.

• Grapes belong to the family Vitaceae; scientific name: Vitis vinifera.
• Originated near the Caspian Sea (Armenia region).
• Viticulture refers to grape cultivation.
• Over 10,000 grape varieties exist worldwide.
• Grapes contribute significantly to global fruit production.

• Prefer semi-arid, subtropical regions with warm, dry summers and cool winters.
• Require long, dry summers for proper fruit maturity and ripening.
• High humidity and summer rains increase fungal disease risk.
• Rest period (dormancy) occurs in winter in temperate regions.
• In tropical regions, vines may have two growth cycles per year.

• Best grown in well-drained, deep loamy soils (minimum 1 m depth).
• Optimal soil pH: 6.5–7.0.
• Soils should be fertile and rich in organic matter.
• Poor drainage or waterlogging adversely affects vine health.

• Primarily propagated by hardwood cuttings from one-year-old healthy canes.
• Cuttings: 25–30 cm long, lower cut below a bud, upper cut above a bud.
• Callusing in moist sand before nursery planting improves rooting.
• Grafting and budding used for specific rootstock requirements (e.g., disease resistance).

• Phylloxera resistance: Vitis riparia, V. rupestris
• Nematode resistance: Dogridge, Salt Creek
• Salinity tolerance: Solonis, 1616

• Trenches (0.6 m width/depth) or pits (1 m3) prepared for planting.
• Apply well-decomposed FYM, compost, or green manure before planting.
• Spacing: 3 × 2 m (Muscat), 4 × 3 m (other varieties).
• Plant rooted cuttings during June–July.

• Irrigate immediately after planting, then weekly.
• Withhold irrigation 15 days before pruning and harvest.
• Drip irrigation is preferred for efficient water use.

• Apply FYM and green manure before planting and after pruning.
• Fertilizer doses vary by variety and vine age (see table below).
• Apply half the potassium dose after pruning, remainder after 60 days.
• Foliar spray: 0.1% boric acid + 0.2% ZnSO4 + 1% urea before flowering and 10 days later.

Example Fertilizer Schedule (kg/vine/year):

• Tipping shoots and tying clusters after fruit set.
• Remove tendrils and nip axillary/terminal buds at 12–15 buds.
• Thin compact bunches by removing ~20% berries at pea stage.
• Dip clusters in 0.5 ppm brassinosteroid + 25 ppm GA3 solution 10–12 days after fruit set.

• Grapes require specific soil, climate, and management for optimal yield and quality.
• Proper propagation, nutrient, and water management are essential.
• Special cultural practices improve fruit quality and market value.

• Citrus crops are prone to various nutrient deficiencies, physiological disorders, pests, and diseases.
• Proper identification and management are crucial for healthy growth and high yield.
• Integrated management practices combine cultural, chemical, and biological methods.

• Sudden temperature changes and moisture stress.
• Cracking may be radial or transverse.
• Secondary infection by Aspergillus, Fusarium, or Alternaria possible.

Management:

• Apply light irrigation at frequent intervals.
• Apply potassium during fruit development.

• Juice vesicles become hard, enlarged, and opaque grayish.
• Pulp density increases; juice has more minerals, less carbohydrate and organic acid.
• Lignification of juice cells forms sclerenchyma.

Causes:

• High humidity, temperature fluctuations, excess nitrogen, large fruit size, susceptible rootstocks.
• Young trees and mandarins on Jatti Khatti rootstock are more prone.

Management:

• Avoid excess moisture.
• Spray lime (20 kg in 450 L water).
• Spray zinc (0.5%) and copper (0.5%).

• Exposed fruit develops yellow patches, turning brown and hard.
• Inner portion becomes desiccated and discoloured.
• Fruits malformed, low juice content, may drop; leaves turn brown.

Management:

• Spray lime solution (20 g/L) before summer.
• Regulate irrigation to reduce temperature.
• Mulch tree basins.

• Stunted growth, leaf mottling, yellowing, and shedding.
• Excess flowering, poor fruit set, sun blotching of fruits.

Causes:

• Calcium carbonate or clay in soil, rootstock-scion incompatibility, salinity, waterlogging, poor orchard management.

Management:

• Ensure proper drainage and orchard management.
• Use resistant rootstocks and disease-free budwood.

• Spray dimethoate 2 ml/L + neem oil 3%.

Leaf Caterpillar:

• Apply endosulfan 2 ml/L for moderate to severe infestation.

Sucking Pests (Whitefly):

• Spray quinalphos 2 ml/L.

Nematodes:

• Apply carbofuran 75 g/tree or Pseudomonas fluorescens 20 g/tree.

• Prune dried twigs and spray 0.3% copper oxychloride.

Scab:

• Spray 1% Bordeaux mixture.

Tristeza Virus:

• Remove and destroy infected trees.
• Spray monocrotophos 1 ml/L to control aphid vectors.
• Use pre-immunized seedlings for planting.

• Acid lime starts bearing from the 3rd year after planting.
• Main crop harvested at different times across regions; average yield is 20–25 kg/tree/year.
• Treat fruits with 4% wax emulsion and pre-pack in 200-gauge polythene bags (1% ventilation) to extend shelf life over 10 days.
• Store limes at 18°C for best results.
• Low-cost storage tanks with double-layer brickwork and wet sand interspace can be used for storage.

• Combine cultural, chemical, and biological methods for sustainable citrus production.
• Regular monitoring and early detection of disorders, pests, and diseases.
• Use resistant varieties and healthy planting material.
• Maintain balanced nutrition and proper irrigation.
• Adopt proper pruning, sanitation, and post-harvest handling.

• Citrus spp. belong to the family Rutaceae.
• Includes oranges, lemons, limes, pummelo, and grapefruit.
• Originated in tropical and subtropical Southeast Asia.
• Third most important fruit group in India after mango and banana.

• Acid group: Acid lime (C. aurantifolia), Lemon (C. limon), Citron (C. medica), etc.
• Orange group: Sweet orange (C. sinensis), Sour orange (C. aurantium).
• Mandarin group: C. reticulata, C. unshiu, C. deliciosa, Kinnow.
• Pummelo and grapefruit group: Pummelo (C. grandis), Grapefruit (C. paradisi), Kumquat (Fortunella sp.).
• Hybrids: Citrange, Tangelo, Citrangequat, used mainly as rootstocks.

• Best grown in subtropical climates, 500–1500 m MSL elevation.
• Optimal rainfall: 150–250 cm/year; mild winters preferred.
• Ideal soil: Medium/light loam, pH 5.5–6.5, well-drained.
• Acid lime prefers pH 6.5–7.0; sensitive to frost.

• Kodai Orange (C. reticulata): Vigorous, small, loose rind, heavy seeded.
• Nagpur Santra (C. reticulata): Leading commercial mandarin, fine texture, juicy, matures Jan–Feb.
• Coorg Mandarin (C. reticulata): Medium-large, bright orange, regular bearer.
• Satsuma Mandarin (C. unshiu): Japanese, seedless, thin rind, excellent quality.
• Kinnow (King × Willow leaf): Hybrid, high yield, export potential.
• Khasi Mandarin: North-East India, excellent quality, polyembryonic seeds.

• Seed propagation: Used for most mandarins; select true-to-type, healthy seeds.
• Vegetative propagation: T-budding on rootstocks like Rangpur lime, Cleopatra, Rough lemon, Troyer citrange.
• Budded plants bear earlier and are more uniform.
• Rootstocks selected for disease resistance and soil adaptability.

• Planting season: May–June and September–October (monsoon period).
• Spacing: 6 × 6 m for most mandarins; 5–6 m for acid lime.
• Pit size: 75 × 75 × 75 cm, filled with FYM, sand, and topsoil.
• High-density planting possible for Kinnow using Troyer citrange rootstock.

• Train trees to single stem with 4–6 main branches.
• Remove water shoots, rootstock sprouts, and laterals up to 45–50 cm height.
• Prune bearing trees after harvest to remove dead, diseased, and weak branches.
• Root pruning sometimes used for crop regulation.

• Mandarins may flower 1–3 times/year (Ambe, Mrig, Hast Bahar).
• Bahar treatment: Expose roots and withhold water to induce rest and synchronized flowering.
• Not recommended for light soils or North India.

• Apply FYM and NPK fertilizers in two splits (June and October).
• Micronutrients: Zn, Mn, Fe, Mg, B, Mo required; avoid excess Na and Cl.
• Apply lime/dolomite in acidic soils once every 2–3 years.
• Foliar sprays of micronutrients during new flushes improve growth.

• Young plants require regular irrigation, especially during dry spells.
• Mandarins: Water at 10–15 day intervals in winter, 5–7 days in summer.
• Avoid waterlogging; citrus is sensitive to excess moisture.
• Water should be free from salts.

• Weeds compete for nutrients and water, especially in young orchards.
• Pre-emergence herbicides: Diuron (5 kg/ha), Terbacil (4.5 kg/ha).
• Post-emergence: Atrazine (5–6 kg/ha), Glyphosate (5 L/ha).
• Intercropping with legumes (pea, cowpea, blackgram) is beneficial during pre-bearing years.

• 2,4-D (20 ppm) or NAA (30 ppm) sprayed at flowering and marble stage increases fruit retention.
• Improves fruit set and reduces premature fruit drop.

• Budded plants bear in 3–5 years; seedlings in 5–7 years.
• Yield: 15–20 t/ha/year; 1000–1500 fruits/tree/year at full bearing.
• Harvest when fruits are full-sized, colored, and have optimal sugar-acid blend.
• Use clippers or secateurs to avoid skin damage.

• Grade fruits by size and appearance; pack in wooden boxes or CFB cartons.
• Store at 8–10°C, 85–90% RH for best shelf life.
• HDPE/poly bags with ventilation extend storage life of Kinnow and Nagpur Santra.
• Waxing and neem leaf extract reduce post-harvest losses.

• Citrus requires careful varietal selection, proper soil, and climate management.
• Judicious nutrient and water management are essential for high yield and quality.
• Integrated weed, pest, and disease management improve orchard health.
• Proper post-harvest handling ensures better market returns.

• Banana is a major tropical fruit crop with significant economic importance.
• Production is limited by physiological disorders, pests, and diseases.
• Effective management is essential for sustainable yield and fruit quality.

• Observed in cv. Poovan, mainly in Tamil Nadu.
• Fruits are conical, ill-filled, with a prominent central core and non-viable seeds.
• Spray 2,4-D at 20 ppm when last hand opens to prevent disorder.

Hard Lump

• Occurs in cv. Rasthali; pulp is pinkish-brown, firm, and tastes unripe.
• Spray 2,4-D at 1000 ppm or dip peduncle cut end for 5 minutes to reduce lumps.

Sunscald

• Caused by direct sun exposure on bunches and peduncle.
• Cover bunches and peduncle with banana or flag leaves to prevent damage.

• Short, narrow leaves clustered at pseudostem apex (‘bunchy’ appearance).
• Leaf margins wavy and rolled upward in advanced stages.

Management:

• Remove affected plants with rhizome.
• Plant virus-free suckers.
• Control aphids with insecticides (e.g., 0.3% Rogor, 0.05% Monocrotophos).

Banana Bract Mosaic Virus
Pathogen: Banana bract mosaic virus, transmitted by Aphis gossypii and Pentalonia nigronervosa.
Symptoms:

• Discoloration and necrotic streaks on male bud bracts.
• Spindle-shaped discoloration on pseudostem.

Management:

• Early detection and removal of infected plants.
• Control vectors as for other viral diseases.

Banana Streak Virus
Pathogen: Banana streak virus, transmitted by citrus mealybug (Planococcus citri).
Symptoms:

• Foliar mosaic and necrotic streaks on leaves.

• Yellowing and withering of leaves; petiole breaks and hangs.
• Longitudinal splitting of pseudostem; plant death.

Management:

• Remove infected plants; apply lime (2 kg/pit) and fallow for 6 months.
• Grow resistant varieties (Dwarf Cavendish, Poovan, Nendran).
• Crop rotation with paddy in wetland areas.
• Apply carbendazim (50–60 mg) in corm at 45° angle.

Sigatoka Leaf Spot
Pathogen: Mycosphaerella musicola.
Symptoms:

• Yellowish-green streaks along veins, enlarging into elongated spots.
• Coalescence of spots leads to leaf drying.

Management:

• Spray copper oxychloride or carbendazim (500 g/ha).
• Avoid close planting to reduce humidity.

• Yellowing starts from inner leaves, spreads upward; wilting of all leaves.

Management:

• Ensure good drainage.
• Biological control with Pseudomonas fluorescens.
• Crop rotation with non-hosts (e.g., sorghum).

Tip Over (Heart Rot)
Pathogen: Erwinia carotovora.
Symptoms:

• Rotting of central tender leaf; pseudostem detaches easily from corm.
• Bacterial ooze from corm and pseudostem edges.

Management:

• Use disease-free suckers.
• Grow resistant varieties (e.g., Poovan).

• Adopt integrated pest and disease management (IPDM) for sustainable production.
• Use resistant varieties and healthy planting material.
• Practice crop rotation and proper field sanitation.
• Apply recommended fungicides and insecticides judiciously.
• Bunches mature 100–150 days after flowering.
• Average yields (t/ha/year): Poovan 40–50, Monthan 30–40, Robusta 50–60, Dwarf Cavendish 50–60.

• Banana (Musa spp.) is a major fruit crop and staple food in tropical regions.
• Origin: South East Asia; called ‘Apple of Paradise’.
• Main producing states: Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar.
• Edible bananas are mostly hybrids of M. acuminata and M. balbisiana.
• Fruits develop by parthenocarpy (without fertilization).

• Deep, well-drained soils rich in organic matter are ideal.
• Optimum soil pH: 5.5–8.0.
• Soil depth: At least 1 meter.

Climate:

• Prefers humid tropical climate.
• Temperature range: 10°C to 40°C (optimum ~23°C).
• Altitude: Up to 1500 m above mean sea level.
• Rainfall: Minimum 100 mm/month is beneficial.
• High wind velocity (>80 m/hr) can damage plants.

• Wet land: Feb–Apr (Poovan, Rasthali, Monthan), Apr–May (Nendran, Robusta).
• Garden land: Jan–Feb, Nov–Dec.
• Padugai land: Jan–Feb, Aug–Sep.
• Hill banana: Apr–May (lower Palani hills), Jun–Aug (Sirumalai).

Propagation Methods:

• By suckers: Sword suckers (vigorous, early bearing) and water suckers (less vigorous).
• Average sucker weight: 1.5–2 kg.
• Micropropagation (tissue culture) for rapid multiplication.

• Trim roots and decayed corm portions; cut pseudostem to 20 cm above corm.
• For wilt-prone varieties, dip corm in 0.1% carbendazim for 5 min.
• Pralinage: Dip corm in clay slurry and sprinkle with 40 g carbofuran 3G per sucker to control nematodes.
• Alternative: Dip in 0.75% monocrotophos, shade dry 24 hours before planting.

Field Preparation:

• Deep ploughing and leveling of land.
• Dig pits (45 cm x 45 cm x 45 cm); refill with topsoil, 10 kg FYM, 250 g neem cake, 50 g lindane 1.3%.

• Garden land: 1.8 x 1.8 m (3086 plants/ha) or 1.5 x 1.5 m (4444 plants/ha).
• Wet land: 2.1 x 2.1 m (2267 plants/ha).
• Hill: 3.6 x 3.6 m (750 plants/ha).
• High density: 3 suckers/pit at 1.8 x 3.6 m (4600 plants/ha).

• Immediate irrigation after planting; life irrigation on 4th day.
• Subsequent irrigation: Weekly (garden land), every 10–15 days (wetland).
• Drip irrigation: 15 L/plant/day (planting–4th month), 20 L/plant/day (5th month–shooting), 25 L/plant/day (shooting–15 days before harvest).

• Apply N, P, K as per land type and variety (see table below).
• Use neem-coated urea for N application.
• Apply N & K in 3 splits (3rd, 5th, 7th month); P at 3rd month.
• For tissue culture plants, apply 50% extra fertilizer at 2nd, 4th, 6th, 8th month.
• Biofertilizers: Azospirillum and Phosphobacteria (20 g each at planting and 5th month).

• Apply 25 L water/plant/day with 200:30:300 g N:P2O5:K2O/plant using water-soluble fertilizers.
• For cost-saving, use 30% recommended N & K via fertigation; full P as basal at 2nd month.

Micronutrients:

• Spray ZnSO4 (0.5%), FeSO4 (0.2%), CuSO4 (0.2%), H3BO3 (0.1%) at 3, 5, 7 months after planting.

• Bi-monthly digging and earthing-up.
• Desuckering: Remove side suckers monthly.
• Remove and burn dry/dead leaves.
• Remove male flower a week after last hand opens.
• Propping: Support bunches with bamboo or casuarina poles to prevent wind damage.

• Spray 2,4-D at 25 ppm after last hand opens to improve bunch grade and reduce seediness (Poovan).
• Spray CCC (1000 ppm) at 4th and 6th month to enhance yield.
• Spray plantozyme (2 ml/L) at 6th and 8th month for higher yield.
• Cover bunches with transparent polyethylene sleeves (2–4% ventilation) after last hand opens.

• Suitable intercrops: Leguminous vegetables, beetroot, elephant foot yam, sunhemp.
• Incorporate sunhemp at 45 days to reduce nematode build-up.
• Avoid cucurbitaceous vegetables as intercrops.

• Mango faces several physiological disorders, pests, and diseases affecting yield and quality.
• Major problems include alternate bearing, malformation, spongy tissue, and fruit drop.
• Effective integrated management is essential for sustainable production.

• Irregular fruiting pattern with heavy crop one year and little or none the next.

Occurrence:

• Common in north Indian varieties; south Indian varieties are mostly regular bearers.

Management:

• Soil drenching with paclobutrazol (5–10 g/tree) induces flowering and increases yield.
• Proper nutrition and irrigation management help reduce alternate bearing.

• Vegetative malformation (common in seedlings and young plants).
• Floral malformation (affects bearing trees, reduces productivity).

Symptoms:

• Bunchy top: compact leaves at shoot apex; arrested shoot growth.
• Malformed panicles in floral malformation.

Management:

• Deblossoming and spraying 200 ppm NAA reduce malformed panicles.
• Remove and destroy affected shoots and panicles.

• Distal end of fruit turns black, hardens, and ripens prematurely.
• Affected fruits become unmarketable.

Causes:

• Smoke from brick-kilns (CO, CO2, SO2, acetylene) within 600 m.

Management:

• Increase chimney height of brick-kilns.
• Spray borax (0.6%) at 10–14 day intervals from fruit set.

• Cluster of small, dark green fruitlets at panicle tip (bunch tip).
• Fruitlets grow to marble size, then growth ceases.

Causes:

• Adverse climate, especially low temperature during February–March.
• Poor embryo development.

Management:

• Protect trees from adverse weather; select tolerant varieties.

• Specific to Alphonso mango; affects export quality.

Symptoms:

• Normal external appearance; internal flesh patch is spongy, yellowish, and sour.

Causes:

• High temperature, convective heat, post-harvest sun exposure.

Management:

• Use sod culture and mulching to reduce incidence.
• Harvest at three-fourths maturity.
• Use resistant hybrids (e.g., Ratna, Arka Puneet).

• High fruit drop rate, especially in first four weeks after fruit set (up to 99%).

Management:

• Regular irrigation during fruit development.
• Timely pest and disease control.
• Apply NAA (50 ppm) or 2,4-D (20 ppm) six weeks after fruit set.

• Spray phosalone 0.05%, carbaryl 2 g/L, or phosphamidon 1 mL/L.

Nut Weevil (Cryptorrhynchus mangiferae):

• Maintain orchard cleanliness; destroy adults in bark crevices.
• Spray fenthion 0.1%.

Stem Borer (Batocera rufomaculata):

• Apply monocrotophos 36 WSC (10 mL/tree) via padding.
• Apply carbofuran 3G (5 g/bore hole) and plug with mud.

Fruit Fly (Bactrocera spp.):

• Plough interspaces to expose pupae.
• Use methyl eugenol traps; remove and bury fallen fruits.

• Apply sulphur dust (350 mesh) in early morning.
• Spray wettable sulphur 0.2% or tridemorph 0.05%.

Anthracnose and Stalk/End Rot (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides):

• Spray mancozeb 0.2% or carbendazim 0.1% preharvest, 3 times at 15-day intervals.

Sooty Mould (Capnodium spp.):

• Spray dimecron 0.03% + maida 5% (1 kg maida/starch boiled in 1 L water, diluted to 20 L).

• Adopt integrated pest and disease management (IPDM) for sustainable mango production.
• Combine cultural, chemical, and biological methods for effective control.
• Regular monitoring and timely interventions are crucial.
• Use resistant varieties and proper orchard sanitation.

• Mango (Mangifera indica) is known as the ‘king of fruits’ in India.
• India accounts for about 56% of global mango production.
• Major producing states: Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka, Maharashtra, West Bengal, Gujarat.
• Mango contributes nearly 39.5% of India’s total fruit production.

• Grows in alluvial to lateritic soils; avoid poorly drained black cotton soils.
• Prefers slightly acidic soils (pH 5.5–7.5); poor growth above pH 7.5.
• Good drainage is essential for healthy growth.

Climate:

• Tropical to subtropical; can be grown up to 1,100 m above sea level.
• Optimal temperature: 24–27°C; higher temperatures improve fruit quality.
• Requires 25–250 cm annual rainfall; avoid high humidity and frost during flowering.

• Over 1,000 varieties exist; about 20 are commercially important.
• Popular varieties: Alphonso, Banganapalli, Bombay Green, Chausa, Dashehari, Fazli, Gulab Khas, Himsagar, Kesar, Kishenbhog, Langra, Mankurad, Neelum, Pairi, Totapuri.
• Varietal preference varies by state and region.
• North Indian varieties often alternate-bearers; South Indian varieties are generally regular-bearers.

• Mango is highly heterozygous and cross-pollinated.
• Polyembryonic varieties (mainly in South India) can be grown from seed; monoembryonic (North India) require vegetative propagation.
• Common propagation methods: inarching, veneer grafting, side grafting, epicotyl/stone grafting.
• Rootstock seedlings are raised from fresh seeds (sown within 4–5 weeks of extraction).

• Planting systems: square, rectangular, and hexagonal; square and rectangular are most common.
• Spacing depends on variety vigor and cropping system; typically 10–12 m for traditional planting.
• Pits of 1 m × 1 m × 1 m are prepared and filled with well-rotted farmyard manure.
• Planting is best done during the rainy season (June–September).

• High-density planting increases yield per unit area.
• Amrapali is suitable for high-density planting (2.5 m × 2.5 m spacing).
• Paclobutrazol (2 ml/tree) induces flowering in off-years.
• Pruning and use of dwarfing rootstocks (e.g., Vellaikolumban) help manage tree size.

• Training is essential in early years to develop a strong framework.
• Proper branch spacing facilitates intercultural operations.
• Pruning is minimal; mainly removal of diseased, dead, or crossing branches.

• Apply 73 g N, 18 g P2O5, 68 g K2O per year of age (up to 10 years).
• After 10 years: 730 g N, 180 g P2O5, 680 g K2O per tree/year in two split doses (June–July, Sept–Oct).
• Correct micronutrient deficiencies with foliar sprays: 0.3% zinc sulphate, 0.5% borax, 0.5% manganese sulphate.

Irrigation:

• Young plants (up to 2 years) require regular watering (about 30 L/week).
• Irrigation during pre-flowering and fruit set increases yield.
• Established trees: irrigate at 10-day intervals after fruit set.

• Intercropping reduces weed growth and nutrient loss.
• Suitable intercrops: blackgram, wheat, brinjal, onion.
• Cover crops like sunhemp, cowpea, and pea help prevent soil erosion.

• Harvest mangoes with pedicel to reduce injury and fungal infection.
• Average yield: 8 tonnes/ha; 1,000–2,000 fruits/tree during bearing age.
• Sort and grade fruits by size; use proper packaging (perforated cardboard boxes preferred).
• Store mature green mangoes at 5–16°C; avoid chilling injury.
• Postharvest treatments: waxing, hot-water treatment, individual wrapping, hydro-cooling extend shelf life.

• Mango thrives in well-drained, slightly acidic soils and warm, humid climates.
• Choose suitable varieties and hybrids for region and market demand.
• Adopt high-density planting and proper nutrient management for higher productivity.
• Intercropping and postharvest care improve sustainability and fruit quality.

• Fruits are classified based on their temperature and climatic requirements.
• Main categories: temperate, subtropical, and tropical fruits.
• Some fruits can adapt to more than one climatic zone (e.g., mango, grape).
• Agroclimatic zones help determine suitable crops and cultivars for each region.

• Vegetative and flower buds enter dormancy in late summer or autumn.
• Require substantial winter chilling for bud break and growth.
• Frost-hardy; tolerant to snowfall and ice.
• Soils are usually shallow, acidic, and rainfall is adequate.
• Found at high elevations in India (e.g., Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh).

• Intermediate temperatures; brief chilling periods may occur.
• Fruits have no distinct rest period; light frost possible.
• Rainfall varies from low to high; soils are generally neutral and sandy loam/alluvial.
• Soil fertility is often low; photoperiodic requirement is not marked.
• Regions: Punjab, Haryana, parts of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Assam.

• Chilling temperatures are absent; high temperatures prevail year-round.
• Narrow day-night temperature variation; insignificant photoperiodic requirement.
• Rainfall and soil types vary widely (clay loam, alluvial, saline, sandy, laterite).
• Major fruit crops: mango, banana, papaya, guava.
• Regions: Central, Southern, and Coastal India.

• Low and erratic rainfall (100–500 mm annually); high evapotranspiration.
• High solar radiation and wind velocity; soils are sandy with low organic matter.
• Poor water holding capacity and saline groundwater in many areas.
• Major regions: Rajasthan, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Ladakh (cold arid).

• ICAR recognizes eight major agroclimatic zones for land use planning.
• Zones include: Western/Eastern Himalayas, Bengal-Assam, Sutlej-Ganga Plains, Eastern/Southern Islands, Arid Western Plains, Semi-arid Plateaus, Western Ghats.
• Each zone is characterized by unique climate, soil, and crop suitability.

• Fifteen broad agroclimatic zones based on physiography and climate.
• Examples: Western/Eastern Himalayan, Gangetic Plains, Plateau and Hills, Coastal Plains, Western Dry Region, Island Region.
• Used for effective agricultural planning and resource allocation.

• India divided into 21 agroecological regions based on physiography, soils, bioclimate, and growing period (GP).
• Growing period: Arid (<90 days), Semi-arid (90–150 days), Subarid (150–210 days), Humid (>210 days).
• Supports precise crop and land use planning.

• Tamil Nadu has seven climatic zones based on rainfall, altitude, and irrigation sources.
• Zones: North-eastern, North-western, Western, Cauvery Delta, Southern, High Rainfall, Hilly.
• Each zone has distinct rainfall patterns, soil types, and major crops.