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• Maturity is the stage when fruits or vegetables are fully developed and can ripen normally after harvest.
• Proper harvest timing is crucial for maintaining postharvest quality.
• Maturity indices are signs or measurements indicating readiness for harvest.
• Harvesting at correct maturity improves shelf life, flavor, and market value.

• Maturation is the process leading to full tissue development in fruits and vegetables.
• Ripening occurs after maturity and involves flavor and color development.
• After maturity, the fruit relies on its own reserves as the supply from the plant stops.
• The stage of maturity at harvest affects storage life and quality.

• Premature harvesting leads to poor quality, low sugar, high acidity, and poor flavor.
• Immature fruits may not ripen properly and have short shelf life.
• Overmature fruits are prone to spoilage and have reduced storage life.
• Proper harvest stage is essential for optimal yield and marketability.

• Produce should reach peak acceptable quality for consumers at the time of sale.
• Fruits and vegetables must have acceptable flavor, appearance, size, and shape.
• Harvested produce should be safe and non-toxic.
• Harvest maturity should ensure adequate shelf life and handling properties.

• Physiological maturity: Stage when fruit can ripen normally after harvest; applies mainly to fruits and fruit vegetables.
• Climacteric fruits: Harvest at mature but unripe stage for storage and transport.
• Non-climacteric fruits: Harvest at ripe stage for best quality.
• Horticultural (commercial) maturity: Stage when produce meets consumer and market preferences; varies by intended use and variety.

• Physiologically immature: Not ready for harvest, poor quality.
• Firm and mature: Optimal for harvest, good quality and handling.
• Harvest ripe: Fully ripe, best for immediate consumption but limited shelf life.

• Maintains product quality and freshness.
• Improves storage life and handling.
• Facilitates ripening and senescence management.
• Maximizes returns and enables long-distance transport.
• Helps manage pest and disease risks.

• Maturity indices are signs or measurements indicating readiness for harvest.
• Ensure sensory quality (flavor, color, aroma, texture, nutrition).
• Enable adequate postharvest life and market scheduling.
• Facilitate efficient harvest and packing operations.

• Subjective indices: Qualitative; based on senses (color, size, shape, firmness, sound, juice content).
• Objective indices: Quantitative; measurable (TSS, acidity, starch, oil content, firmness, dry matter, days after bloom, heat units, respiration, ethylene).

• Size, shape, and surface character indicate maturity (e.g., banana fingers become rounded, mango shoulders fill out).
• Surface gloss changes (melons, grapes) and drying of leaves or bracts (root crops) are indicators.
• Skin color changes from green to yellow/red/purple as fruits mature.
• Color charts and colorimeters provide objective color measurement.

• Firmness/solidity assessed by hand pressure (lettuce, cabbage) or penetrometer (e.g., mango: 1.75–2 kg/cm²).
• Tenderometer measures pea maturity based on texture.
• Finger squeeze/touch used for peas, beans, okra (experience-based).
• Specific gravity increases with maturity; used for grading (e.g., Dasheri mango: 1.02).
• Juice content increases as fruit matures; measured by extracting and quantifying juice volume.
• Acoustic/sound tests (e.g., watermelon, jackfruit) detect maturity by tapping.
• Other methods: exudation of latex (papaya), electrical properties, NMR, X-rays (lettuce).

• Total soluble solids (TSS) measured with a refractometer; indicates sugar content.
• Titratable acidity (TA) determined by titration; acidity decreases with maturity.
• Brix:acid ratio is a key indicator of flavor and maturity.
• Oil content used for avocados; minimum 8% oil (excluding skin and seed) for harvest.
• Starch content measured for crops like apples and bananas; decreases as fruit ripens.

• Calendar date: Based on typical harvest periods for varieties and locations.
• Days from full bloom (DFFB): Reliable but varies with season and location (e.g., mango: 110–125 days).
• Growing degree days (GDD): Cumulative heat units predict maturity; base temperature varies by crop.
• GDD formula: (Daily mean temp – Base temp) × Number of days (flowering to harvest).

• Respiration rate: Climacteric fruits show a rise at maturity (e.g., apple, pear).
• Internal ethylene evolution: Peaks at maturity in climacteric fruits.
• Volatile production: Specific aroma compounds indicate maturity (e.g., apple: ethyl-2-methyl butyrate).

• Combining subjective and objective indices ensures accurate harvest timing.
• Selection of indices depends on crop, intended use, and market requirements.
• Proper maturity assessment maximizes quality, shelf life, and market value.

• Harvesting: Gathering mature crops from the field.
• Post-harvest handling: Operations after harvest to maintain quality and reduce losses.
• Proper techniques are essential for quality, shelf-life, and profitability.

• Maturity: Stage when a crop is ready for harvest.
• Maturity indices: Observable signs indicating readiness for harvest.
• Indices include color, size, shape, texture, weight, and composition.

• Physiological maturity: Crop has completed development; ripening begins.
• Commercial maturity: Harvest stage based on market or processing needs.
• Harvest timing may differ based on intended use.

1. Visual method: Color, size, shape, abscission zones.
2. Feel method: Firmness, crispness, texture by touch.
3. Chemical analysis: Sugar, acid, starch content.
4. Physical means: Pressure tester, specific gravity.
5. Computation method: Days from planting or flowering to harvest.

• Inspect fields for crop readiness and remove obstructions.
• Prepare harvesting tools and materials.
• Construct temporary sheds for harvested produce.
• Avoid exposing harvested crops to sunlight.

• Use appropriate tools: scissors, pruning shears, knives.
• Proper tools reduce damage and maintain quality.

• Harvest at optimal time of day (e.g., morning or late afternoon).
• Harvest at proper maturity for intended use.
• Avoid sun exposure to prevent wilting and sunscald.
• Handle produce gently to prevent mechanical injury.
• Avoid deep piling to prevent crushing and heat buildup.

• Trimming and cleaning: Remove damaged or diseased parts.
• Sorting and grading: Classify by size, shape, color, and quality.
• Drying and curing: For tubers and bulbs to heal wounds.
• Proper storage: Maintain suitable temperature and humidity.

• Mechanical injuries: Cuts, abrasions, bruises during harvest/handling.
• Physiological losses: Yellowing, wilting, sprouting, toughening.
• Both types reduce quality and market value.

• Cleaning removes soil, dirt, and residues.
• Wiping with a soft cloth is preferred for some vegetables.
• Trimming removes undesirable, damaged, or diseased parts.
• Improves appearance and reduces transport costs.

• Sorting: Grouping by industry or consumer standards.
• Grading: Classifying by color, size, shape, maturity, defects.
• Grades: Fancy, No. 1, 2, 3, 4, or off-grade.
• Honest grading enhances market value and reputation.

• Packing: Placing produce in suitable containers for transport/storage.
• Use crates (wooden/plastic) with liners to prevent injury.
• Do not mix different grades in one container.
• Proper packing reduces losses and maintains quality.

• Curing: Exposing tubers/roots to warm, humid conditions to heal wounds.
• Recommended for potatoes, sweet potatoes, onions (15–19°C, high RH).
• Storage: Delays sale/distribution; controls supply and stabilizes price.
• Not all vegetables are suitable for long-term storage.

• Transport from farm to market must minimize damage.
• Avoid throwing, trampling, or overloading containers.
• Proper loading preserves quality and reduces losses.

• Technological: Decay, yellowing, wilting, rotting, sprouting.
• Mechanical: Cuts, punctures, cracks, abrasions from poor handling.
• Non-technological: Lack of storage, transport, adverse weather, market demand.
• Microbial decay often follows mechanical or physiological damage.

• Marketing: Transfer of goods from producer to consumer.
• Types: Local market, nearby town market, wider regional/national markets.
• Freshness is crucial for leafy and perishable vegetables.

1. Retailing directly to consumers: Farmer sells in local markets.
2. Selling to middlemen/wholesalers: Middlemen harvest and market crops.
3. Selling at the farm: Direct negotiation with buyers.
4. Selling through contracting companies: Pre-agreed contracts specify terms.
5. Selling through cooperatives: Collective marketing for better returns.

• Farm records: Written statements of facts and figures for management.
• Farm accounts: Financial statements tracking income and expenses.
• Essential for monitoring financial status and decision-making.

• Fixed costs: Incurred regardless of production (e.g., land tax, equipment depreciation).
• Variable costs: Change with production (e.g., seeds, fertilizers, labor).
• Cash costs: Actual money spent (e.g., hired labor, inputs).
• Non-cash costs: Family labor, own capital interest.

• Gross income = Quantity produced × Price per unit.
• Total cost = Fixed costs + Variable costs.
• Net income = Gross income – Total cost.

• Harvest at correct maturity using appropriate indices.
• Handle produce gently to avoid mechanical damage.
• Sort, grade, and pack properly for market requirements.
• Use suitable storage and transport methods to minimize losses.
• Maintain accurate records for better farm management.

• Fresh vegetables are highly perishable due to active senescence processes.
• Post-harvest management includes all activities from harvest to consumption.
• Main goal: minimize losses and maintain quality and nutritional value.
• Key activities: harvesting, handling, storage, processing, packaging, transport, and marketing.

• Understand techniques to reduce post-harvest losses in vegetables.
• Identify causes and control measures for post-harvest losses.
• Recognize marketing channels and associated losses.
• Learn various post-harvest management techniques.

• Maintains quality and extends shelf life of vegetables.
• Reduces food losses, poverty, and food insecurity.
• Improves market share and competitiveness for smallholders.
• Enhances human nutrition and health.
• Reducing losses is often easier than increasing yield.

• Improper harvesting (immature, over-mature produce).
• Faulty post-harvest practices and poor handling.
• Inadequate sorting, grading, and storage conditions.
• Improper packaging and delayed transport.
• Biological (pests, diseases), chemical, mechanical, physical, and physiological factors.

• Biological: Pests, diseases, microbial spoilage.
• Chemical: Contamination, off-flavors from pathogens or chemicals.
• Mechanical: Injuries, bruises, cuts during handling.
• Physical: Water loss, temperature extremes.
• Physiological: Sprouting, rooting, senescence, respiration changes.

• Farmers → Wholesalers → Retailers → Consumers
• Farmers → Cooperatives → Retailers/Consumers
• Farmers → Pre-harvest Contractors → Wholesalers → Retailers → Consumers
• Farmers → Local Collectors → Wholesalers → Retailers → Consumers
• Direct marketing: Farmers → Consumers

• Farm: Harvesting and field handling.
• Pack-house: Cleaning, sorting, sanitizing, packaging, cooling, storage.
• Transport: Loading, unloading, stacking, protection.
• Market: Re-sorting, re-packing, storage.
• Processing: Drying, sauce production, fermentation.

1. Harvesting
2. Reception
3. Pre-cooling
4. Selection, Cleaning & Disinfection
5. Drying
6. Grading
7. Other Treatments
8. Packing & Packaging
9. Storage
10. Transport

• Quality cannot be improved after harvest; harvest at optimum maturity.
• Harvesting time depends on intended use and market requirements.
• Harvest during cooler parts of the day to reduce heat load.
• Avoid harvesting during rain; if unavoidable, wash and dry before packaging.

• Days from fruit set
• Visual indicators (color, shape, external appearance)
• Texture and firmness
• Specific gravity, starch content, soluble solids
• Sugar-acid ratio, oil content, odor

• Technique for reducing water loss in hardy vegetables (e.g., onion, garlic, sweet potato).
• Involves drying under shade to heal wounds and toughen outer layers.
• Prevents decay and moisture loss during storage.

• Removes dust, dirt, and pathogens from produce surface.
• Methods: dry dusting, wet washing with clean water and mild detergent (0.1%).
• Washing duration: 3–5 minutes at room temperature (~27°C).

• Sorting: Removal of diseased, damaged, or deformed produce.
• Grading: Categorization by size, weight, color, maturity, and quality.
• Improves market value and reduces spread of infection.

• Protects produce from physical damage and contamination.
• Should be cost-effective, easy to handle, and suitable for transport.
• Reduces losses during marketing and storage.
• Materials: cartons, crates, baskets, plastic containers, etc.

• Different vegetables require specific storage conditions.
• Starchy vegetables: store at 15.5–21.1°C in dry locations.
• Most others: store at refrigerator temperatures (0–5°C).
• Keep away from ethylene-producing fruits to prevent premature ripening.

• Temperature is critical for extending shelf life and reducing spoilage.
• Improper temperature causes chilling or heat injuries.
• Optimal temperature inhibits pathogen growth and delays senescence.

• Vegetables have varying respiration rates affecting shelf life.
• High respiration rate: shorter shelf life (e.g., asparagus, mushrooms).
• Low respiration rate: longer shelf life (e.g., onions, potatoes).

• Transport is a major factor in post-harvest losses.
• Produce should be transported quickly and efficiently.
• Proper packaging and loading are essential to minimize damage.
• Use refrigerated vehicles for long distances when possible.

• Refrigerated and non-refrigerated vehicles for highways.
• Containers for air, rail, and sea transport.
• Pallets for bulk handling.
• Manual transport: carts, wheelbarrows, animal-drawn vehicles for short distances.

• Post-harvest losses in vegetables can reach 20–50% between harvest and retail.
• Losses increase with more intermediaries in the marketing chain.
• Proper post-harvest technologies and timely operations minimize losses.
• Focus on harvesting at optimum maturity, cleaning, sorting, grading, packaging, storage, and transport.

• Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) is a major solanaceous vegetable crop.
• Native to the Peruvian-Mexican region; introduced to India by Portuguese travelers.
• Valued for its nutritional content, including vitamins C, A, and B.
• Widely cultivated for fresh consumption and processing industries.

• Scientific name: Solanum lycopersicum
• Family: Solanaceae
• Chromosome number: 2n=24
• Annual, terrestrial plant with compound, alternately arranged leaves.
• Inflorescence is a cyme; flowers are yellow, perfect, and hypogynous.
• Fruit is a fleshy berry with 2–9 locules, usually red, orange, or yellow when ripe.

• Consumed as a vegetable and in processed forms (soup, ketchup, sauce, paste, juice).
• Rich in minerals: potassium, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, boron.
• Medicinal uses: promotes gastric secretion, acts as blood purifier, intestinal antiseptic.
• Tomato seed oil is used in salad dressings and margarine production.

• IARI, New Delhi: Pusa Early Dwarf, Pusa Ruby, Pusa Red Plum
• IIHR, Bangalore: Arka Saurabh, Arka Vikas, Arka Alok, Arka Vishal
• PAU, Ludhiana: Punjab Tropic, S-12, Punjab NR-7
• Private sector: Mangala, Sheetal, Vaishali, Rupali, Rashmi, Naveen

• Inflorescence: Cymes, flowers borne in clusters.
• Anthesis: Begins at 6 a.m., peaks 7–8 a.m.; anther dehiscence peaks 9–11 a.m.
• Stigma receptive 16 hours before anthesis, remains receptive 2–3 days after.
• Optimum pollination temperature: ~21°C; pollen viability: 7–10 days at 20°C, 70% RH.

• Warm-season crop; optimal temperature: 20–28°C.
• Cannot tolerate frost; temperatures below 15°C or above 39°C affect fruit set.
• Prefers well-drained, fertile, organic-rich soils with pH 6–7.
• Moderately tolerant to acidic soils (pH as low as 5.5); lime recommended for low pH.

• Propagated by seeds; nursery beds should be porous and fertile.
• Seeds sown in lines 5 cm apart, covered with sand, and watered gently.
• Dry grass cover for 3–5 days promotes early germination.
• Seedlings ready for transplanting at 25–30 days, 10–15 cm tall.

• Seed rate: 500–800 g/ha; ~300 seeds per gram.
• Seed treatment with IAA in talc powder enhances germination and vigor.
• Seeds may be treated with fungicides (e.g., captan or thiram) before sowing.

• Tomato is a heavy feeder of N, P, and K.
• Irrigated: 250:250:250 kg NPK/ha; Rainfed: 60:50:30 kg NPK/ha.
• Apply 35 t/ha FYM before planting.
• Micronutrients (Ca, B, Zn) applied via foliar sprays.

• Organic manures incorporated before final ploughing.
• N applied in 2–3 splits: after transplanting, at flowering, and at fruiting.
• Full P and K applied at planting, mixed into soil near rows.

• Seedlings transplanted at 3–4 weeks, 10–15 cm tall.
• Spacing: 60 × 30 cm; ridges preferred in heavy soils.
• Transplant in the evening; irrigate immediately after planting.

• First irrigation after transplanting, second on day 3, then at 7-day intervals.
• Weekly irrigation in hot season; irrigate during frost risk in winter.
• First weeding at 25 days, earthing up at 45 days after planting.
• Pre-plant herbicide application can aid weed control.

• Fruit borer, jassids, tobacco caterpillar, whitefly, root-knot nematodes.
• Control: Hand picking, crop rotation, insecticides, resistant varieties.

Major Diseases:

• Damping off, buckeye rot, Fusarium wilt, early blight, late blight, bacterial canker, leaf curl virus.

Physiological Disorders:

• Blossom end rot, cat face, fruit cracking.

• Plants supported with stakes to prevent lodging and fruit-soil contact.
• Roguing removes off-types and diseased plants at pre-flowering, flowering, and fruiting stages.
• Ensures genetic purity and seed quality.

• Fruits harvested at pink to red ripe stage for seed extraction.
• Hybrid seed yield: 40–50 kg/ha under optimal conditions.

• Crushed ripe fruits fermented until pulp separates from seeds.
• Seeds washed and sun-dried.

Alkali Treatment:

• Pulp treated with alkali, left overnight; seeds settle and are washed.

Acid Treatment:

• Pulp mixed with 5–6 ml/kg HCl, stirred, washed after 30 min, seeds dried.

• Seeds washed thoroughly to remove pulp and mucilage.
• Dried rapidly to 8% moisture on trays or cloth in sun.
• Graded using sieves (0.6–0.8 mm); larger seeds preferred for quality.

• Seeds treated with captan or thiram (2 g/kg seed) before storage.
• Packed in moisture-proof containers at 8–10% moisture content.
• Viability maintained for 25–30 months under proper storage.

• Requires separate male and female parent lines (ratio 1:5).
• Emasculation of female flowers at late bud stage; anthers removed.
• Pollen from male parent applied to stigma of emasculated flowers.
• Bagging prevents unwanted cross-pollination; tagged for identification.

Seed Standards:

• Grapes (Vitis vinifera) are a major fruit crop grown globally for fresh consumption, raisins, and wine.
• Optimal growth requires balanced nutrition, pest and disease management, and proper cultural practices.
• Understanding disorders and their management is crucial for high yield and quality.

• Common deficiencies: Nitrogen, Potassium, Magnesium, Zinc, Boron, Iron.
• Symptoms include chlorosis, poor fruit set, stunted growth, and leaf necrosis.
• Soil and leaf analysis help diagnose nutrient disorders.

• Apply recommended fertilizers based on soil and tissue analysis.
• Use foliar sprays for micronutrient deficiencies (e.g., ZnSO4 for zinc, Fe-EDTA for iron).
• Incorporate organic manures and green manures to improve soil health.
• Maintain proper irrigation to aid nutrient uptake.

• Gibberellic acid (GA3) used to increase berry size and improve cluster looseness.
• Apply 25 ppm GA3 at calyptra fall and pepper stages for seedless varieties.
• Potassium chloride (0.2%) sprayed at 20 and 40 days after berry set for uniform ripening.

• Berry cracking: Caused by irregular watering or boron deficiency.
• Uneven ripening: Linked to potassium deficiency or hormonal imbalance.
• Poor fruit set: Often due to zinc or boron deficiency.

• Apply carbofuran 60 g/vine one week before pruning; irrigate well.
• Use neem cake 200 g/vine and Pseudomonas fluorescens for biocontrol.

Flea Beetles

• Spray phosalone 2 ml/l after pruning; repeat 2–3 times as needed.

Thrips

• Spray dimethoate 2 ml/l for control.

Mealy Bug

• Spray monocrotophos 2 ml/l; use sticky bands and natural predators for IPM.

• Caused by Uncinula necator.
• Symptoms: White powdery growth on leaves, shoots, and berries.
• Management: Sulphur dusting @ 6–12 kg/ha; use resistant varieties.

Downy Mildew

• Caused by Plasmopara viticola.
• Symptoms: Yellowish oil spots on leaves, white downy growth on lower surface.
• Management: Spray 1% Bordeaux mixture; ensure good air circulation.

• Harvest only after full ripening for best quality.
• Heat requirement: 2900–3600 degree days for most varieties.
• Average yields: Seedless – 15 t/ha/yr; Muscat – 30 t/ha/yr; Pachadraksha – 40 t/ha/yr; Anab-e-Shahi/Arka hybrids – 20 t/ha/yr.
• Room temperature storage: Up to 7 days; cold storage (-2 to -1.5°C): 40–45 days.

• Raisins are a major by-product in grape-growing regions.
• Grapes with 17° Brix and above are suitable; 20–23° Brix is standard for high-quality raisins.
• Proper drying and storage are essential to prevent spoilage.

• Grapes belong to the family Vitaceae; scientific name: Vitis vinifera.
• Originated near the Caspian Sea (Armenia region).
• Viticulture refers to grape cultivation.
• Over 10,000 grape varieties exist worldwide.
• Grapes contribute significantly to global fruit production.

• Prefer semi-arid, subtropical regions with warm, dry summers and cool winters.
• Require long, dry summers for proper fruit maturity and ripening.
• High humidity and summer rains increase fungal disease risk.
• Rest period (dormancy) occurs in winter in temperate regions.
• In tropical regions, vines may have two growth cycles per year.

• Best grown in well-drained, deep loamy soils (minimum 1 m depth).
• Optimal soil pH: 6.5–7.0.
• Soils should be fertile and rich in organic matter.
• Poor drainage or waterlogging adversely affects vine health.

• Primarily propagated by hardwood cuttings from one-year-old healthy canes.
• Cuttings: 25–30 cm long, lower cut below a bud, upper cut above a bud.
• Callusing in moist sand before nursery planting improves rooting.
• Grafting and budding used for specific rootstock requirements (e.g., disease resistance).

• Phylloxera resistance: Vitis riparia, V. rupestris
• Nematode resistance: Dogridge, Salt Creek
• Salinity tolerance: Solonis, 1616

• Trenches (0.6 m width/depth) or pits (1 m3) prepared for planting.
• Apply well-decomposed FYM, compost, or green manure before planting.
• Spacing: 3 × 2 m (Muscat), 4 × 3 m (other varieties).
• Plant rooted cuttings during June–July.

• Irrigate immediately after planting, then weekly.
• Withhold irrigation 15 days before pruning and harvest.
• Drip irrigation is preferred for efficient water use.

• Apply FYM and green manure before planting and after pruning.
• Fertilizer doses vary by variety and vine age (see table below).
• Apply half the potassium dose after pruning, remainder after 60 days.
• Foliar spray: 0.1% boric acid + 0.2% ZnSO4 + 1% urea before flowering and 10 days later.

Example Fertilizer Schedule (kg/vine/year):

• Tipping shoots and tying clusters after fruit set.
• Remove tendrils and nip axillary/terminal buds at 12–15 buds.
• Thin compact bunches by removing ~20% berries at pea stage.
• Dip clusters in 0.5 ppm brassinosteroid + 25 ppm GA3 solution 10–12 days after fruit set.

• Grapes require specific soil, climate, and management for optimal yield and quality.
• Proper propagation, nutrient, and water management are essential.
• Special cultural practices improve fruit quality and market value.

• Citrus crops are prone to various nutrient deficiencies, physiological disorders, pests, and diseases.
• Proper identification and management are crucial for healthy growth and high yield.
• Integrated management practices combine cultural, chemical, and biological methods.

• Sudden temperature changes and moisture stress.
• Cracking may be radial or transverse.
• Secondary infection by Aspergillus, Fusarium, or Alternaria possible.

Management:

• Apply light irrigation at frequent intervals.
• Apply potassium during fruit development.

• Juice vesicles become hard, enlarged, and opaque grayish.
• Pulp density increases; juice has more minerals, less carbohydrate and organic acid.
• Lignification of juice cells forms sclerenchyma.

Causes:

• High humidity, temperature fluctuations, excess nitrogen, large fruit size, susceptible rootstocks.
• Young trees and mandarins on Jatti Khatti rootstock are more prone.

Management:

• Avoid excess moisture.
• Spray lime (20 kg in 450 L water).
• Spray zinc (0.5%) and copper (0.5%).

• Exposed fruit develops yellow patches, turning brown and hard.
• Inner portion becomes desiccated and discoloured.
• Fruits malformed, low juice content, may drop; leaves turn brown.

Management:

• Spray lime solution (20 g/L) before summer.
• Regulate irrigation to reduce temperature.
• Mulch tree basins.

• Stunted growth, leaf mottling, yellowing, and shedding.
• Excess flowering, poor fruit set, sun blotching of fruits.

Causes:

• Calcium carbonate or clay in soil, rootstock-scion incompatibility, salinity, waterlogging, poor orchard management.

Management:

• Ensure proper drainage and orchard management.
• Use resistant rootstocks and disease-free budwood.

• Spray dimethoate 2 ml/L + neem oil 3%.

Leaf Caterpillar:

• Apply endosulfan 2 ml/L for moderate to severe infestation.

Sucking Pests (Whitefly):

• Spray quinalphos 2 ml/L.

Nematodes:

• Apply carbofuran 75 g/tree or Pseudomonas fluorescens 20 g/tree.

• Prune dried twigs and spray 0.3% copper oxychloride.

Scab:

• Spray 1% Bordeaux mixture.

Tristeza Virus:

• Remove and destroy infected trees.
• Spray monocrotophos 1 ml/L to control aphid vectors.
• Use pre-immunized seedlings for planting.

• Acid lime starts bearing from the 3rd year after planting.
• Main crop harvested at different times across regions; average yield is 20–25 kg/tree/year.
• Treat fruits with 4% wax emulsion and pre-pack in 200-gauge polythene bags (1% ventilation) to extend shelf life over 10 days.
• Store limes at 18°C for best results.
• Low-cost storage tanks with double-layer brickwork and wet sand interspace can be used for storage.

• Combine cultural, chemical, and biological methods for sustainable citrus production.
• Regular monitoring and early detection of disorders, pests, and diseases.
• Use resistant varieties and healthy planting material.
• Maintain balanced nutrition and proper irrigation.
• Adopt proper pruning, sanitation, and post-harvest handling.

• Citrus spp. belong to the family Rutaceae.
• Includes oranges, lemons, limes, pummelo, and grapefruit.
• Originated in tropical and subtropical Southeast Asia.
• Third most important fruit group in India after mango and banana.

• Acid group: Acid lime (C. aurantifolia), Lemon (C. limon), Citron (C. medica), etc.
• Orange group: Sweet orange (C. sinensis), Sour orange (C. aurantium).
• Mandarin group: C. reticulata, C. unshiu, C. deliciosa, Kinnow.
• Pummelo and grapefruit group: Pummelo (C. grandis), Grapefruit (C. paradisi), Kumquat (Fortunella sp.).
• Hybrids: Citrange, Tangelo, Citrangequat, used mainly as rootstocks.

• Best grown in subtropical climates, 500–1500 m MSL elevation.
• Optimal rainfall: 150–250 cm/year; mild winters preferred.
• Ideal soil: Medium/light loam, pH 5.5–6.5, well-drained.
• Acid lime prefers pH 6.5–7.0; sensitive to frost.

• Kodai Orange (C. reticulata): Vigorous, small, loose rind, heavy seeded.
• Nagpur Santra (C. reticulata): Leading commercial mandarin, fine texture, juicy, matures Jan–Feb.
• Coorg Mandarin (C. reticulata): Medium-large, bright orange, regular bearer.
• Satsuma Mandarin (C. unshiu): Japanese, seedless, thin rind, excellent quality.
• Kinnow (King × Willow leaf): Hybrid, high yield, export potential.
• Khasi Mandarin: North-East India, excellent quality, polyembryonic seeds.

• Seed propagation: Used for most mandarins; select true-to-type, healthy seeds.
• Vegetative propagation: T-budding on rootstocks like Rangpur lime, Cleopatra, Rough lemon, Troyer citrange.
• Budded plants bear earlier and are more uniform.
• Rootstocks selected for disease resistance and soil adaptability.

• Planting season: May–June and September–October (monsoon period).
• Spacing: 6 × 6 m for most mandarins; 5–6 m for acid lime.
• Pit size: 75 × 75 × 75 cm, filled with FYM, sand, and topsoil.
• High-density planting possible for Kinnow using Troyer citrange rootstock.

• Train trees to single stem with 4–6 main branches.
• Remove water shoots, rootstock sprouts, and laterals up to 45–50 cm height.
• Prune bearing trees after harvest to remove dead, diseased, and weak branches.
• Root pruning sometimes used for crop regulation.

• Mandarins may flower 1–3 times/year (Ambe, Mrig, Hast Bahar).
• Bahar treatment: Expose roots and withhold water to induce rest and synchronized flowering.
• Not recommended for light soils or North India.

• Apply FYM and NPK fertilizers in two splits (June and October).
• Micronutrients: Zn, Mn, Fe, Mg, B, Mo required; avoid excess Na and Cl.
• Apply lime/dolomite in acidic soils once every 2–3 years.
• Foliar sprays of micronutrients during new flushes improve growth.

• Young plants require regular irrigation, especially during dry spells.
• Mandarins: Water at 10–15 day intervals in winter, 5–7 days in summer.
• Avoid waterlogging; citrus is sensitive to excess moisture.
• Water should be free from salts.

• Weeds compete for nutrients and water, especially in young orchards.
• Pre-emergence herbicides: Diuron (5 kg/ha), Terbacil (4.5 kg/ha).
• Post-emergence: Atrazine (5–6 kg/ha), Glyphosate (5 L/ha).
• Intercropping with legumes (pea, cowpea, blackgram) is beneficial during pre-bearing years.

• 2,4-D (20 ppm) or NAA (30 ppm) sprayed at flowering and marble stage increases fruit retention.
• Improves fruit set and reduces premature fruit drop.

• Budded plants bear in 3–5 years; seedlings in 5–7 years.
• Yield: 15–20 t/ha/year; 1000–1500 fruits/tree/year at full bearing.
• Harvest when fruits are full-sized, colored, and have optimal sugar-acid blend.
• Use clippers or secateurs to avoid skin damage.

• Grade fruits by size and appearance; pack in wooden boxes or CFB cartons.
• Store at 8–10°C, 85–90% RH for best shelf life.
• HDPE/poly bags with ventilation extend storage life of Kinnow and Nagpur Santra.
• Waxing and neem leaf extract reduce post-harvest losses.

• Citrus requires careful varietal selection, proper soil, and climate management.
• Judicious nutrient and water management are essential for high yield and quality.
• Integrated weed, pest, and disease management improve orchard health.
• Proper post-harvest handling ensures better market returns.

• Banana is a major tropical fruit crop with significant economic importance.
• Production is limited by physiological disorders, pests, and diseases.
• Effective management is essential for sustainable yield and fruit quality.

• Observed in cv. Poovan, mainly in Tamil Nadu.
• Fruits are conical, ill-filled, with a prominent central core and non-viable seeds.
• Spray 2,4-D at 20 ppm when last hand opens to prevent disorder.

Hard Lump

• Occurs in cv. Rasthali; pulp is pinkish-brown, firm, and tastes unripe.
• Spray 2,4-D at 1000 ppm or dip peduncle cut end for 5 minutes to reduce lumps.

Sunscald

• Caused by direct sun exposure on bunches and peduncle.
• Cover bunches and peduncle with banana or flag leaves to prevent damage.

• Short, narrow leaves clustered at pseudostem apex (‘bunchy’ appearance).
• Leaf margins wavy and rolled upward in advanced stages.

Management:

• Remove affected plants with rhizome.
• Plant virus-free suckers.
• Control aphids with insecticides (e.g., 0.3% Rogor, 0.05% Monocrotophos).

Banana Bract Mosaic Virus
Pathogen: Banana bract mosaic virus, transmitted by Aphis gossypii and Pentalonia nigronervosa.
Symptoms:

• Discoloration and necrotic streaks on male bud bracts.
• Spindle-shaped discoloration on pseudostem.

Management:

• Early detection and removal of infected plants.
• Control vectors as for other viral diseases.

Banana Streak Virus
Pathogen: Banana streak virus, transmitted by citrus mealybug (Planococcus citri).
Symptoms:

• Foliar mosaic and necrotic streaks on leaves.

• Yellowing and withering of leaves; petiole breaks and hangs.
• Longitudinal splitting of pseudostem; plant death.

Management:

• Remove infected plants; apply lime (2 kg/pit) and fallow for 6 months.
• Grow resistant varieties (Dwarf Cavendish, Poovan, Nendran).
• Crop rotation with paddy in wetland areas.
• Apply carbendazim (50–60 mg) in corm at 45° angle.

Sigatoka Leaf Spot
Pathogen: Mycosphaerella musicola.
Symptoms:

• Yellowish-green streaks along veins, enlarging into elongated spots.
• Coalescence of spots leads to leaf drying.

Management:

• Spray copper oxychloride or carbendazim (500 g/ha).
• Avoid close planting to reduce humidity.

• Yellowing starts from inner leaves, spreads upward; wilting of all leaves.

Management:

• Ensure good drainage.
• Biological control with Pseudomonas fluorescens.
• Crop rotation with non-hosts (e.g., sorghum).

Tip Over (Heart Rot)
Pathogen: Erwinia carotovora.
Symptoms:

• Rotting of central tender leaf; pseudostem detaches easily from corm.
• Bacterial ooze from corm and pseudostem edges.

Management:

• Use disease-free suckers.
• Grow resistant varieties (e.g., Poovan).

• Adopt integrated pest and disease management (IPDM) for sustainable production.
• Use resistant varieties and healthy planting material.
• Practice crop rotation and proper field sanitation.
• Apply recommended fungicides and insecticides judiciously.
• Bunches mature 100–150 days after flowering.
• Average yields (t/ha/year): Poovan 40–50, Monthan 30–40, Robusta 50–60, Dwarf Cavendish 50–60.

• Banana (Musa spp.) is a major fruit crop and staple food in tropical regions.
• Origin: South East Asia; called ‘Apple of Paradise’.
• Main producing states: Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar.
• Edible bananas are mostly hybrids of M. acuminata and M. balbisiana.
• Fruits develop by parthenocarpy (without fertilization).

• Deep, well-drained soils rich in organic matter are ideal.
• Optimum soil pH: 5.5–8.0.
• Soil depth: At least 1 meter.

Climate:

• Prefers humid tropical climate.
• Temperature range: 10°C to 40°C (optimum ~23°C).
• Altitude: Up to 1500 m above mean sea level.
• Rainfall: Minimum 100 mm/month is beneficial.
• High wind velocity (>80 m/hr) can damage plants.

• Wet land: Feb–Apr (Poovan, Rasthali, Monthan), Apr–May (Nendran, Robusta).
• Garden land: Jan–Feb, Nov–Dec.
• Padugai land: Jan–Feb, Aug–Sep.
• Hill banana: Apr–May (lower Palani hills), Jun–Aug (Sirumalai).

Propagation Methods:

• By suckers: Sword suckers (vigorous, early bearing) and water suckers (less vigorous).
• Average sucker weight: 1.5–2 kg.
• Micropropagation (tissue culture) for rapid multiplication.

• Trim roots and decayed corm portions; cut pseudostem to 20 cm above corm.
• For wilt-prone varieties, dip corm in 0.1% carbendazim for 5 min.
• Pralinage: Dip corm in clay slurry and sprinkle with 40 g carbofuran 3G per sucker to control nematodes.
• Alternative: Dip in 0.75% monocrotophos, shade dry 24 hours before planting.

Field Preparation:

• Deep ploughing and leveling of land.
• Dig pits (45 cm x 45 cm x 45 cm); refill with topsoil, 10 kg FYM, 250 g neem cake, 50 g lindane 1.3%.

• Garden land: 1.8 x 1.8 m (3086 plants/ha) or 1.5 x 1.5 m (4444 plants/ha).
• Wet land: 2.1 x 2.1 m (2267 plants/ha).
• Hill: 3.6 x 3.6 m (750 plants/ha).
• High density: 3 suckers/pit at 1.8 x 3.6 m (4600 plants/ha).

• Immediate irrigation after planting; life irrigation on 4th day.
• Subsequent irrigation: Weekly (garden land), every 10–15 days (wetland).
• Drip irrigation: 15 L/plant/day (planting–4th month), 20 L/plant/day (5th month–shooting), 25 L/plant/day (shooting–15 days before harvest).

• Apply N, P, K as per land type and variety (see table below).
• Use neem-coated urea for N application.
• Apply N & K in 3 splits (3rd, 5th, 7th month); P at 3rd month.
• For tissue culture plants, apply 50% extra fertilizer at 2nd, 4th, 6th, 8th month.
• Biofertilizers: Azospirillum and Phosphobacteria (20 g each at planting and 5th month).

• Apply 25 L water/plant/day with 200:30:300 g N:P2O5:K2O/plant using water-soluble fertilizers.
• For cost-saving, use 30% recommended N & K via fertigation; full P as basal at 2nd month.

Micronutrients:

• Spray ZnSO4 (0.5%), FeSO4 (0.2%), CuSO4 (0.2%), H3BO3 (0.1%) at 3, 5, 7 months after planting.

• Bi-monthly digging and earthing-up.
• Desuckering: Remove side suckers monthly.
• Remove and burn dry/dead leaves.
• Remove male flower a week after last hand opens.
• Propping: Support bunches with bamboo or casuarina poles to prevent wind damage.

• Spray 2,4-D at 25 ppm after last hand opens to improve bunch grade and reduce seediness (Poovan).
• Spray CCC (1000 ppm) at 4th and 6th month to enhance yield.
• Spray plantozyme (2 ml/L) at 6th and 8th month for higher yield.
• Cover bunches with transparent polyethylene sleeves (2–4% ventilation) after last hand opens.

• Suitable intercrops: Leguminous vegetables, beetroot, elephant foot yam, sunhemp.
• Incorporate sunhemp at 45 days to reduce nematode build-up.
• Avoid cucurbitaceous vegetables as intercrops.