Author: admin

• Insect Pest of Tomato

• Group Members Muhammad Zubair Reg#2017-uam-223 Contact 03000127002

• 1. Tomato fruit Borer. 2. Whitefly. 3. Serpentine leafminer. 4. Tomato leafminer. 5. Aphids.

• Tomato fruit Borer • Scientific Name: Helicoverpa armigera. • Order: Lepidoptera. Status Fruit borer is a serious pest of tomato as it reduces yield by up to 40%. Distribution Widely distributed in tropics, subtropics and warmer temperate regions of the world.

• • Description stages Four life stages: Egg, larva and pupa and adult. Eggs are initially white, later darkening before they hatch. Larvae are small when they emerge but can grow to about 2cm. Mature larvae are white to pinkish with a brown head

• Description stages

• Mode of damage Larval damage, especially the holes larvae make when they emerge from the fruit, can provide a pathway for disease-causing micro- organisms to enter the plant

• Non chemical Control Spray 5% Neem seed kernel extract to kill early stages larvae. Placement of 15-20 bird perches per ha helps in inviting insectivorous birds for management of the fruit borer. Use of NPV @ 250-300 LE/ha along with juggary @ 20 g/l when sprayed at 10 days interval also given protection against fruit borer. Deep ploughing after harvesting the crop to expose the pupae for natural killing affords good protection. Chemical control • Use the insecticides chlorantraniliprole, flubendiamide, cypermethrin or alpha- and zeta-cypermethrin to reduce populations. The first spray should be at the flowering stage and followed by sprays at either 10 or 15 days interval.

• Whitefly Order: Homoptera Family: Aleyrodidae Scientific Name: Bemisia tabaci Status Whiteflies are small, soft-bodied sucking insects that look like tiny white triangles, less than one-tenth of an inch long, that often rest on the undersides of plants. Several species of whiteflies may infest tomato.

• Distribution • It is distributed in tropical and sub-tropical climate including Pakistan Description stages Four description stages 1. Egg 2. Nymph 3. Pupa 4. Adult Duration stages Adult:2-5 days in summer and 24 days in november. Eggs: eggs are laid on lower and middle leavesfemale female can lay upto110 eggs. Hatch in 3-5 days in april-sep,5-17 days in oct-nov and33 days in december

• Nymph :9-14 das during april to september and 17-81 days in oct- to march pupa: 2-8 days Mode of damage 1. Sucking cell Sap 2. Injection of toxic saliva 3. Sooty mould

• non chemical control avoid cultivation of alternative host avoid use of nitrogenous fertilizers Avoid over irrigation Green lace is a effective predator Chemical control Imidacloprid Diafenthiuron Acetamiprid

• Serpentine leafminor • Order: • Diptera • Section: • Schizophora • Family: • Agromyzidae • Genus: • Liriomyza • Species: • L. brassicae

• • Food plants • wide host range, including bean, cantaloupe, celery, cucumber, eggplant, onion, pepper, potato, squash, tomato, watermelon. Ame • Description Eggs tend to be deposited in the middle of the plant; the adult seems to avoid immature leaves. Larva: The larva is legless. Adult: Adults are small, measuring less than 2 mm in length, with a wing length of 1.25 to 1.9 mm.

• • Duration stages • The average period is 21 days, can be short as 15 days.it can varies with host and temperature. Eggs are laid singly in punctures in the leaf epidermis. The eggs are small, 1/100 inch in length, and hatch 2- 4 days. • Life history • The larva crawls into the ground to pupate. A small percentage of the larvae remain hanging on the leaf and pupate there.

• • Mode of damage • Punctures caused by females during the feeding and oviposition processes can result in a stippled appearance on foliage, especially at the leaf tip and along the leaf margins. However, the major form of damage is the mining of leaves by larvae, which results in destruction of leaf mesophyll.

• Non chemical control • While not usually threatening to plants, leafminer control is often necessary to manage the highly visible tunnels in leaves that can reduce crop value. … Host plants include beans, blackberries, cabbage, lettuce, peppers, and a variety of ornamental flowers, citrus trees and shrubs … Chemical control • The use of pesticides (organophosphates, carbamates and pyrethroids) for the control of leafminer pests that attack vegetables will kill their natural enemies, as well as selecting resistant leafminer strains.

• Aphids • Order: • Hemiptera • Suborder: • Sternorrhyncha • Infraorder: • Aphidomorpha • Superfamily: • Aphidoidea Geoffroy, 1762

• • Food plants of a major agricultural pest • Description stagese smaller yellow form occurs during warmer summer conditions. The green form is larger and occurs during cooler spring and autumn temperatures, and uncrowded conditions. A. gossypii can range in colour from yellow to very dark (almost black) green. The smaller yellow form occurs during warmer summer conditions. • Duration stages • – The average reproductive period was 7.8-5.4 days on cotton plants while average reproductive period was 11.2-8.6 days on egg plants. The average nymphal duration on cotton plant was 4.8 to 5.8 days and in eggplant it was between 8.6 to 11.2 days.

• • Life span • .. The life span of a parthenogenic female is about twenty days in which time it can produce up to 85 nymphs. These mature in about twenty days at .. • Mode of damage • Aphid damage is usually most noticeable on shade trees and ornamental plantings. Leaves, twigs, stems, or roots may be attacked by aphids, whose mouthparts are designed for piercing the plant and sucking the sap. … Some aphid species form galls or cause distorted, curled, or deformed leaves.

• • Non chemical control • Aphis gossypii is found worldwide, wherever its host plants are grown. It prefers warm … Useful non-chemical contribution to Integrated Weed Management • Chemical control Imidacloprid Diafenthiuron Acetamiprid

• Tomato leafminor • Scientific name: Tuta absoluta • Phylum: Arthropoda • Higher classification: Tuta • Order: Lepidoptera • Rank: Species • Family: Gelechiidae • Class: Insecta

• • Description stages The life cycle of a leaf miner has the following stages: egg, three larval instars, a pupal instar and the adult fly. Adult leaf miners are small yellow and black coloured flies, at most only several millimetres long. Duration stages • he life cycle of a leaf miner has the following stages: egg, three larval instars, a pupal instar and the adult fly. Adult leaf miners are small yellow and black coloured flies, at most only several millimetres long.

• • Life Cycle • The Tomato leaf miner has approximately 11 generations per year, because they reproduce very rapidly. Its life span are is very short and it lives for about 30-35 days per generation. The adult females usually lay up to 260 eggs on a plant before its life cycle is over with • Mode of damage • Leaf miners cause damage to plants both directly and indirectly. The most direct damage is caused by the larvae mining the leaf tissue, leading to desiccation, premature leaf-fall and cosmetic damage. In (sub-)tropical areas this can lead to burning in fruit such as tomato and melon. Loss of leaves also reduces yield.

• • Non chemical control Tomato leaf miner larvae feed on leaves and fruits, from seedlings to mature tomato plants. Infestation is often followed by infections by secondary pathogens rendering infested crops unmarketable. An additional host plant of Tuta absoluta is the potato plant but not the tuber! Chemical control Tomato leaf miner is currently controlled by spraying specific synthetic insecticides.

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• Botanical name: Solanum lycopersicum
• Family: Solanaceae
• Chromosome number: 2n=24
• Origin: Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia; domesticated in Mexico
• Edible part: Whole fruit (fleshy berry)
• Pollination: Mainly self-pollinated, hermaphrodite flowers

• First recorded in 1554, South America
• Spread from Mexico to Europe and Asia
• Introduced to India in 1828 by British
• Probable ancestor: Solanum lycopersicum var. cerasiformae (cherry tomato)
• Father of tomato research: Dr. C. M. Rick

• Global area: ~5.16 million ha; production: ~186 million tonnes (2023)
• Top producers: China, India, Turkey, USA, Egypt
• India: 0.88 million ha; 21 million tonnes; productivity: 23.8 t/ha
• Major Indian states: Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Gujarat
• Export hubs: Pune, Bangalore, Nasik, Amaravati

• Second most important vegetable globally after potato
• Rich in ascorbic acid (31 mg/100g), lycopene, carotenoids
• Used fresh and processed (soup, sauce, ketchup, puree, paste)
• Health benefits: antioxidant, anticancer, digestive aid
• Tomato seed oil content: ~24%

• Annual herb with tap root system (depth >50 cm)
• Stem: erect, solid, hairy, glandular; height 2–4 m
• Leaves: compound, pinnatifid, irregularly toothed
• Flowers: small, yellow, borne in raceme cymes
• Fruit: fleshy berry, 2–15 cm diameter, color varies (green, yellow, red)
• Seeds: numerous, kidney-shaped, hairy

• By growth habit: Determinate (bushy, self-topping, early), Indeterminate (erect, late, needs staking)
• By fruit shape: Round, cherry, pear, oblate, etc.
• By subgenus (Muller, 1940): Eulycopersicon (red, self-compatible), Eriolycopersicon (green, wild, self-incompatible)

• Selection criteria: yield, disease resistance, fruit quality, shelf life
• IARI: Pusa Rohini, Pusa Ruby, Pusa Sadabahar, Pusa Uphar
• IIHR: Arka Vikas, Arka Abha, Arka Rakshak (disease resistant)
• IIVR: Kashi Amrit, Kashi Hemant, Kashi Aman (ToLCV resistant)
• Hybrids: Pusa Hybrid 1, Arka Vardan, Arka Meghali
• Processing: Punjab Chhuhara, Roma, Pusa Gaurav
• Protected cultivation: Indeterminate types (e.g., Pusa Ruby, Arka Abha)

• Warm season, day-neutral crop
• Optimum temperature: 20–24°C (growth), 15–20°C (fruit set)
• Red color (lycopene) best at 21–24°C; reduced above 27°C
• Soil: well-drained sandy loam to clay loam, pH 6.0–7.0
• Moderately tolerant to acid soils (pH 5.5)

• Raised beds (15 cm), 3 m x 1 m, sandy loam with organic matter
• Seed rate: OPV 400–500 g/ha; Hybrid 125–175 g/ha
• Seed treatment: Captan/Thiram 2 g/kg
• Bed drenching: Captan or copper oxychloride
• Harden seedlings by reducing water before transplanting
• Transplant 25–30 day old seedlings with 5–6 true leaves

• Resistance to soil-borne diseases and pests
• Tolerance to abiotic stresses (drought, salinity, temperature)
• Increased yield and fruit quality

Examples:

• Brimato: Tomato scion on brinjal rootstock (bacterial wilt resistance)
• Pomato: Tomato scion on potato rootstock (dual harvest)

• Deep ploughing (20–30 cm), followed by harrowing for fine tilth
• Soil solarization (optional) for pest and disease control
• Spacing: Determinate 60 x 45 cm; Indeterminate 90 x 60 cm
• Transplanting: Kharif (July), Rabi (Oct–Nov), Summer (Feb–March)

• FYM: 350 q/ha; N:P:K for OPV: 120:80:100 kg/ha; Hybrid: 200:100:120 kg/ha
• Apply ½ N and all P, K, FYM at planting; rest N as top dressing
• Mulching (25 micron) increases yield by 45–50%
• Drip irrigation saves water (up to 42%) and increases yield (up to 60%)
• Water requirement: 60 L/kg (open field), 4–22 L/kg (greenhouse)

• Weeding: 2 hand hoeings + earthing up
• Pre-emergence herbicides: metribuzin, fluchloralin, pendimethalin
• Staking: improves yield and fruit quality in indeterminate types
• Training: single, two, or three stem systems
• Pruning: remove lateral suckers, maintain 2 stems, every 8–10 days

• Harvest at breaker or half-red stage; first harvest at 70–85 days after transplanting
• Grading by color, size, maturity (Super A, Super, Fancy, Commercial)
• Storage: 12–15°C, 85–90% RH; mature green: up to 30 days, ripe: 10 days
• Yield: OPV 200–350 q/ha; Hybrid 600–750 q/ha

• Causes: irregular irrigation, moisture stress, boron deficiency
• Control: regular irrigation, borax spray, resistant varieties

Blossom End Rot

• Caused by calcium deficiency
• Control: spray CaCl₂ 0.5%, balanced irrigation

Puffiness

• Causes: poor fertilization, high N, high temp
• Control: 4-CPA/CPPU spray, balanced nutrition

Sun Scald

• Due to fruit exposure; avoid excessive pruning in summer

Blotchy Ripening, Cat Face, Golden Flakes

• Due to nutrient imbalance, abnormal growth conditions

• Yellow sticky traps, Chrysoperla release, methyl demeton/dimethoate spray

Whitefly (Bemisia tabaci)

• Remove infected plants, sticky traps, carbofuran, dimethoate/malathion spray

Leaf Miner (Liriomyza trifolii)

• Destroy mined leaves, NSKE 5% spray

Pinworm (Tuta absoluta)

• Pheromone traps, healthy seedlings, neem/Flubendiamide/Indoxacarb spray

Fruit Borer (Helicoverpa armigera)

• Trap crops, pheromone traps, Trichogramma release, Bt spray

• Raised beds, seed treatment (Trichoderma/Thiram), copper oxychloride drench

Early Blight (Alternaria solani)

• Remove debris, crop rotation, Mancozeb spray

Late Blight (Phytophthora infestans)

• Remove infected plants, crop rotation, copper oxychloride/Bordeaux mixture

Fusarium Wilt (Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. lycopersici)

• Remove infected plants, Carbendazim drench, crop rotation

Bacterial Wilt (Ralstonia solanacearum)

• Crop rotation, resistant varieties (Arka Abha, Arka Rakshak)

Mosaic (TMV)

• Disease-free seed, crop rotation, trisodium phosphate seed soak, vector control

Leaf Curl (ToLCV)

• Sticky traps, barrier crops, Imidacloprid/Dimethoate spray

• Use high-yielding, disease-resistant varieties and hybrids
• Adopt proper nursery, land, and nutrient management
• Implement grafting and protected cultivation for stress-prone areas
• Practice regular irrigation, mulching, and weed control
• Monitor and manage pests and diseases using IPM
• Harvest and store fruits at optimal maturity and conditions

• Scientific name: Solanum lycopersicum
• Family: Solanaceae
• Originated in western South America; domesticated in Central America
• Chromosome number: 2n = 24 (corrected; not 26)
• India ranks 2nd globally in tomato production

• Botanically, tomato fruit is classified as a berry
• Rich in vitamins A, C, K and antioxidants like lycopene and lutein
• Consumption helps reduce risk of cancer, supports eye health, and regulates blood pressure

• Top producers: China, India, USA, Turkey, Egypt
• In India: Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat, Odisha, West Bengal, Chhattisgarh, Bihar, Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh

• Tomato is propagated by seeds or vegetative methods
• Vegetative propagation uses plant cuttings for true-to-type plants
• Seed propagation is most common in commercial cultivation

• Warm season crop; optimal temperature: 21–24°C
• Cannot tolerate frost or high humidity
• Prefers deep, well-drained sandy loam soils (15–20 cm depth)
• Requires low to moderate rainfall (approx. 194 mm during growing season)

• Land should be well-prepared, ridged, and free of weeds
• Seed sowing: June–July (autumn-winter), November (spring-summer), March–April (hills)
• Transplant seedlings at 75–90 x 45–60 cm spacing
• Use healthy seedlings (10–12 inches tall)

• Types: Cherry, Grape, Roma, Beefsteak, Heirloom, Tomatoes on the vine, Green tomatoes
• Popular varieties: Rashmi, Pusa Early Dwarf, Rupali, Sioux, Vaishali, Abhinav, Avishkar

• Requires 1–2 inches of water per week
• Drip irrigation preferred for transplanted tomatoes
• Sprinkler irrigation for direct-seeded crops (early stages)
• Furrow irrigation used after establishment

• Apply 20–25 t/ha well-rotted FYM/compost during land preparation
• Recommended fertilizer dose: 75:40:25 kg N:P2O5:K2O per ha
• Apply half N, full P, and half K as basal; remaining N and K as top dressing

• Practices: crop rotation, cultivation, sanitation, proper field preparation
• Pre-emergence herbicide: Metribuzin
• Post-emergence herbicide: Paraquat

• Circular lesions on fruit; centers turn tan; black spots on fruit

Management:

• Avoid sprinkler irrigation during fruit ripening
• Crop rotation with non-solanaceous crops

Black Mold Disease
Pathogen: Alternaria spp.
Symptoms:

• Black or brown lesions on ripe fruit surface

Management:

• Avoid wetting foliage; use fungicides if necessary

Colorado Potato Beetle
Nature: Insect pest
Symptoms:

• Feeding damage to foliage; black and yellow striped beetle visible

Management:

• Handpick adults and larvae; destroy in soapy water
• Use Bacillus thuringiensis for larvae control

Aphids
Nature: Insect pest
Symptoms:

• Yellowing and distortion of leaves

Management:

• Use tolerant varieties; apply neem oil

• First harvest: 60–70 days after transplanting (variety dependent)
• Harvest by twisting fruit by hand or mechanically
• Average yield: 20–25 t/ha; hybrids: up to 50–60 t/ha

• Store mature (yellow) tomatoes at 12–16°C (55–60°F)
• Cold storage life: 3–4 weeks
• Do not store below 4°C (40°F) to avoid chilling injury

• Tomato is a widely grown vegetable crop worldwide.
• Botanical name: Solanum lycopersicum; Family: Solanaceae; Chromosome number: 2n=24.
• Originated in the Andean region (Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia); domesticated in Mexico.
• Introduced to India by the British in 1828.

• Annual herb with a tap root system (up to 50 cm deep).
• Stem: Erect, solid, hairy, glandular; height 2–4 m.
• Leaves: Compound, pinnatifid, irregularly toothed margins.
• Flowers: Small, yellow, borne in racemes; perfect and hypogynous.
• Fruit: Fleshy berry, globular to oblate, 2–15 cm diameter; color varies from green to red/yellow/orange.
• Seeds: Numerous, kidney-shaped, hairy, light brown.

• Determinate: Bushy, self-topping, early maturity, staking not required.
• Indeterminate: Erect, continuous growth, late maturity, staking required.

Botanical Classification (Bailey, 1949):

• L. esculentum var. commune – Common round fruited
• L. esculentum var. grandifolium – Potato-leaved
• L. esculentum var. cerasiformae – Cherry tomato
• L. esculentum var. validum – Upright tomato
• L. esculentum var. pyriformae – Pear-shaped tomato

• Rich in vitamins (A, B, C), minerals (iron, phosphorus, calcium), amino acids, sugars, and dietary fiber.
• Ascorbic acid: 16–65 mg/100g; total sugars: ~2.5% in ripe fruit.
• Used fresh, in salads, pickles, preserves, and processed products (puree, paste, ketchup, sauce, juice).
• Contains lycopene (red pigment), carotenoids (yellow), and tomatine (alkaloid).

• India: ~8.8 lakh ha, 182 lakh tonnes, productivity ~20.7 t/ha.
• Leading states: Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Gujarat.
• Major export areas: Pune, Bangalore, Nasik, Amaravati.
• Main importers: Pakistan, UAE, Bangladesh, Nepal, Oman.

• High yield, disease resistance, fruit quality, shelf life, and TSS.

Popular Varieties:

• Pusa Ruby, Arka Vikas, Arka Meghali, Arka Saurabh, Arka Abha, Pusa Early Dwarf, PKM-1, Hisar Anmol, Pant Bahar.

Hybrids:

• Arka Rakshak, Arka Samrat, Arka Shreshta, Pusa Divya, Rashmi, Rupali, IAHS-88.2.

Special Traits:

• Resistant to ToLCV: Nandi, Sankranti, Vaibhav, Arka Rakshak.
• Resistant to bacterial wilt: Arka Alok, Arka Abha, Arka Shreshta.

• Warm season crop; optimum temperature: 20–24°C.
• Fruit set best at 15–20°C; lycopene synthesis optimal at 21–24°C.
• Grows in all soils; sandy loam preferred for early crop, heavy soils for high yield.
• Soil pH: 6.0–7.0; moderately tolerant to acidic soils (pH 5.5).

• Seed rate: OPV 300–400 g/ha; Hybrids 125–175 g/ha.
• Seed treatment: Captan/Thiram @ 2 g/kg seed.
• Nursery: Raised beds, protected with shade net, use sterilized cocopeat in protrays.
• Seedlings ready in 25–30 days; hardened before transplanting.
• Transplanting at 4–5 weeks; spacing: 60 × 45 cm.

• Apply FYM @ 25 t/ha and neem cake @ 100 kg/ha before last ploughing.
• Raised beds (120 cm width) for better drainage.
• Mulching (plastic or organic) conserves moisture, controls weeds, and regulates soil temperature.
• Plastic mulch (25 micron) can increase yield by 45–50%.

• Total water requirement: 600–700 mm/ha.
• Drip irrigation is efficient, saves water (up to 42%), and increases yield (up to 60%).
• Frequent irrigation essential, especially during flowering and fruiting.
• Balanced fertilization with NPK and micronutrients is crucial.

• Weeding: Two hand hoeings and earthing up recommended.
• Pre-emergence herbicides: Metribuzin (0.35 kg/ha), Pendimethalin (1.0 kg/ha).
• Staking and training improve fruit quality and reduce disease incidence (especially for indeterminate types).
• Pruning and desuckering maintain balance between vegetative growth and fruiting.

• Ethephon (200–500 mg/L): Flower induction, rooting.
• 2,4-D (2–5 mg/L): Increases fruit set, induces parthenocarpy.
• GA3 (50–100 mg/L): Promotes shoot elongation and yield.
• PCPA (50 mg/L): Enhances fruit set under adverse conditions.

• First harvest: 60–85 days after transplanting, depending on variety.
• Harvest stages: Immature green, mature green, breaker, pink, hard ripe, overripe.
• Grading based on color, size, and maturity; BIS grades: Super A, Super, Fancy, Commercial.
• Storage: 12–15°C, 85–90% RH; mature green fruits can be stored up to 30 days.

• Open field: 50 t/ha; Greenhouse: up to 150 t/ha (Singh et al., 2013).
• Yield depends on variety, management, and environmental conditions.

• Brown, sunken lesions at blossom end; due to calcium deficiency and irregular watering.

Fruit Cracking

• Radial/concentric cracks; caused by irregular irrigation, boron deficiency, genetic factors.

Sun Scald

• Blistered, water-soaked areas on exposed fruits; aggravated by defoliation and pruning.

Puffiness

• Partially filled, light fruits; due to poor fertilization, high temperature, or moisture.

Cat Face

• Distorted blossom end with ridges and furrows; linked to low temperature during flowering.

• Regular irrigation and balanced fertilization (especially calcium and boron).
• Avoid excessive pruning and staking during hot periods.
• Grow resistant/tolerant varieties for specific disorders.
• Apply foliar sprays: CaCl2 (0.5%), borax (0.3–0.4%) as needed.

• Use yellow sticky traps, pheromone traps, and biological control (Chrysoperla, Trichogramma).
• Spray recommended insecticides (e.g., dimethoate, malathion, neem formulations) as per guidelines.
• Practice crop rotation and destruction of infested plant parts.

• Use raised beds, seed treatment with Trichoderma/Thiram, drench with copper oxychloride.

Early Blight (Alternaria solani)

• Remove debris, crop rotation, spray Mancozeb 0.2%.

Late Blight (Phytophthora infestans)

• Remove affected plants, crop rotation, drench with copper oxychloride/Bordeaux mixture.

Fusarium Wilt (Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. lycopersici)

• Remove affected plants, spot drench with carbendazim, rotate with non-host crops.

Bacterial Wilt (Ralstonia solanacearum)

• Use resistant varieties, crop rotation with non-hosts.

Mosaic (TMV), Leaf Curl (ToLCV)

• Use disease-free seed, vector control (imidacloprid, dimethoate), crop rotation.

• Use resistant varieties and healthy seedlings.
• Practice crop rotation and field sanitation.
• Monitor pests/diseases regularly; use traps and biocontrol agents.
• Apply chemicals judiciously, following recommended doses and intervals.

• Tomato is a high-value crop with diverse uses and nutritional benefits.
• Proper variety selection, climate, soil, and cultural practices are key for high yield.
• Integrated management of pests, diseases, and physiological disorders ensures quality production.
• Knowledge of post-harvest handling and storage extends shelf life and marketability.

• Monsoon refers to seasonal wind patterns causing significant rainfall, especially in South and Southeast Asia.
• Atmospheric pressure is the weight of air above a unit area, measured in millibars (mb).
• Unequal heating of the earth and its rotation create pressure differences, driving wind systems.
• Pressure distribution is shown on maps using isobars (lines of equal pressure).

• Pressure rises and falls in a daily rhythm due to radiational heating and cooling.
• More pronounced near the equator and at sea level.

Seasonal Variation:

• Caused by annual changes in solar radiation (insolation).
• Greater in tropical regions than in mid or polar latitudes.
• High pressure over continents in winter, over oceans in summer.

• Seven alternating low and high pressure belts exist from equator to poles:

1. Equatorial trough (5°N–5°S, low pressure)
2. Subtropical highs (25°–35°N/S)
3. Subpolar lows (60°–70°N/S)
4. Polar highs (at the poles)

• Pressure belts result from uneven solar heating and earth’s shape.

• Temperature: Hot air expands (low pressure); cold air contracts (high pressure).
• Altitude: Pressure decreases with height; drops ~1 hPa per 10 m ascent.
• Water vapour: Moist, warm air exerts less pressure than dry, cold air.
• Earth’s rotation: Influences pressure at subpolar belts, contributing to global wind patterns.

• Described by G.D. Coriolis (1844).
• Apparent deflection of moving air due to earth’s rotation.
• Deflects right in Northern Hemisphere, left in Southern Hemisphere.
• Not a true force, but an effect of rotation.

• Lowest pressure at center; isobars circular/elliptical.
• Anti-clockwise movement (Northern Hemisphere), clockwise (Southern Hemisphere).
• Wind speed up to 40 km/h.

Anticyclone:

• Highest pressure at center; isobars circular/elliptical.
• Clockwise movement (Northern Hemisphere), anti-clockwise (Southern Hemisphere).

• Low pressure center, wind speed 40–120 km/h.
• Common in Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea; causes heavy rain and damage.

Hurricane:

• Severe tropical cyclone, wind speed >120 km/h.
• Called typhoon (W. Pacific), willy-willy (Australia), cyclone (Indian Ocean).

Thunderstorm:

• Produced by cumulonimbus clouds, with lightning, thunder, strong winds, rain, sometimes hail.

Tornado:

• Violently rotating column of air, funnel-shaped cloud, short duration, causes severe crop loss.

Waterspout:

• Rotating air column over water, similar to tornado but weaker.

• Major wind belts: Doldrums, Trade Winds, Prevailing Westerlies, Polar Easterlies.

Doldrums:

• Near equator (5°N–5°S), low pressure, calm, variable winds, vertical air movement.

Trade Winds (Tropical Easterlies):

• Flow from subtropical highs (25°–35°N/S) to equator.
• Deflected by Coriolis force: NE in Northern, SE in Southern Hemisphere.
• Most constant winds, important for global climate.

Anti-trade Winds:

• Upper-level winds, opposite to surface trades, generally dry.

Prevailing Westerlies:

• From subtropical highs to subpolar lows (60°–70°N/S).
• SW in Northern, NW in Southern Hemisphere; irregular, high precipitation.

Polar Easterlies:

• From polar highs to subpolar lows; cold, dry winds.

• Blow downslope at night due to cooling of air near slopes.

Valley Winds (Anabatic):

• Blow upslope during day due to heating of air near slopes.

Sea Breeze:

• Daytime wind from sea to land; brings moisture, cools coastal areas.

Land Breeze:

• Nighttime wind from land to sea; drier, weaker than sea breeze.

• Transports heat, affecting temperature and humidity around crops.
• Increases transpiration and CO2 intake; can cause mechanical damage.
• Facilitates pollination and seed dispersal.
• Gentle winds help clean produce; strong, dry winds cause water loss and injury.
• Prevents frost by disrupting atmospheric inversion; can cause soil erosion.

• Wind speed measured at 3 m above ground over open terrain.
• Mean daily wind speed: average over 24 hours; annual mean from daily values.
• Winds named for direction they originate (e.g., south wind from south).
• Wind vane measures direction; windward = from, leeward = to.
• Prevailing wind: most frequent wind direction in a region.

• Westerly winds prevail over Kerala; south winds over eastern India.
• High temperatures in north India create low pressure, drawing monsoon winds.

North East Monsoon (October–December):

• High pressure in northern India shifts winds southeastward.
• North-easterly winds bring rainfall to southern and southeastern India.

• Occurs mainly in northern India; snow in hills, rain in plains.
• Western disturbances are key for winter precipitation.

Summer Rainfall:

• Received from March to May as local storms.
• Mainly in southeast peninsular India and Bengal; rare in western India.

• Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) is affected by several fungal and viral diseases.
• Major diseases: Powdery mildew, Fusarium wilt, Alternaria leaf spot, Yellow vein mosaic.
• Effective management requires knowledge of pathogens, symptoms, and control measures.

• White or grayish powdery growth on upper leaf surfaces, later covering entire leaf.
• Lower leaf surfaces may also be infected.
• Affected leaves dry and fall prematurely, reducing yield.

Disease Cycle:

• Overwinters as dormant mycelium or cleistothecia on infected leaves.
• Secondary spread by wind-borne conidia.
• Favored by 60–80% relative humidity and dry conditions.

Management:

• Spray fungicides: wettable sulphur (0.25%), dinocap (0.1%), carbendazim (0.1%), hexaconazole (0.05%), or difenoconazole (0.05%).
• Repeat sprays at 10–14 day intervals.
• Biocontrol: Ampelomyces quisqualis, Trichoderma spp., Bacillus subtilis.
• Use azadirachtin (0.03% EC) as needed.

• Yellowing, stunting, wilting, and rolling of leaves.
• Dark brown vascular discoloration in stems.
• Severe cases: stem blackening and plant death.

Etiology:

• Produces hyaline mycelium, microconidia (single/two-celled), macroconidia (3–4 septa), and chlamydospores.

Disease Cycle:

• Survives as chlamydospores in soil and infected seeds.
• Optimum temperature for growth: 25°C; disease develops at 22–28°C.

Management:

• Use healthy, treated seed (carbendazim 0.2%).
• Practice crop rotation and soil solarization.
• Remove and destroy affected plants.
• Grow resistant varieties: CS-3232, CS-8899, IS-6653, IS-7194, Pusa Makhameli, Pusa Sawani.

• Brown leaf spots with pale margins and yellow halos.
• Lesions enlarge, show concentric rings, and coalesce.
• Severe infection causes leaf drying and defoliation.

Etiology:

• Produces cylindrical conidiophores and brown, muriform conidia with transverse and longitudinal septa.

Disease Cycle:

• Survives in infected plant debris, weed hosts, and seeds.
• Secondary spread by wind-borne conidia.

Management:

• Remove and destroy infected debris and weeds.
• Seed treatment with Thiram (6 g/kg).
• Spray Mancozeb (0.2%) after disease appearance.

• Vein yellowing and thickening, forming a network pattern.
• Leaves become chlorotic and yellow under severe infection.
• Plants are stunted with small, pale fruits.

Disease Cycle:

• Transmitted by whitefly (Bemisia tabaci) in a persistent manner.
• Wild and cultivated plants act as inoculum sources.
• Favored by dry, hot weather with low rainfall.

Management:

• Destroy wild hosts and avoid mixed cropping with pumpkin.
• Adjust sowing dates to avoid peak whitefly populations.
• Remove infected plants up to 55 days after sowing.
• Grow resistant cultivars: Punjab Padmini, Punjab-8, Prabhani Kranti, Hissar Unnat.
• Spray systemic insecticides (cypermethrin, deltamethrin, triazophos) to control vectors.

• Use disease-free, treated seeds and resistant varieties.
• Practice crop rotation, field sanitation, and timely removal of infected plants.
• Apply recommended fungicides and insecticides judiciously.
• Adopt biological control agents where feasible.
• Monitor fields regularly for early detection and management.

• Cabbage and cauliflower are susceptible to several fungal, bacterial, and viral diseases.
• Diseases can cause significant yield and quality losses.
• Integrated Pest Management (IPM) combines multiple strategies for effective disease control.
• Accurate identification is crucial for selecting appropriate management methods.

• Seedlings rot at soil level and collapse.
• Poor germination and patchy stands in nursery beds.

Management:

• Use well-drained, sterilized nursery beds.
• Avoid overwatering.
• Treat seeds with fungicides (e.g., Thiram, Captan).
• Practice crop rotation.

• Yellow spots on upper leaf surface.
• White, downy growth on lower leaf surface.
• Stunted plant growth.

Management:

• Use resistant varieties.
• Ensure good field drainage and air circulation.
• Apply fungicides (e.g., Metalaxyl, Mancozeb) as needed.

• V-shaped yellow lesions at leaf margins.
• Blackening of veins.
• Wilting and stunted growth.

Management:

• Use certified disease-free seeds.
• Practice crop rotation (2–3 years).
• Remove and destroy infected plants.
• Apply copper-based bactericides if needed.

• Dark brown to black concentric spots on leaves.
• Leaf blight and defoliation in severe cases.

Management:

• Use disease-free seeds and resistant varieties.
• Remove crop debris after harvest.
• Apply fungicides (e.g., Mancozeb, Chlorothalonil).

• Swollen, club-shaped roots.
• Wilting and stunted growth, especially in acidic soils.

Management:

• Practice long crop rotation (4–7 years).
• Apply lime to raise soil pH above 7.0.
• Use resistant varieties where available.

• Use certified, disease-free seeds and resistant varieties.
• Practice crop rotation and field sanitation.
• Monitor fields regularly for early disease detection.
• Apply biological control agents (e.g., Trichoderma spp.).
• Use chemical control judiciously, following recommended guidelines.

• Botanical name: Camellia sinensis
• Chromosome number: 2n = 30
• Origin: China
• Tea is susceptible to various fungal, algal, and oomycete diseases affecting yield and quality.
• Effective disease management is crucial for sustainable tea cultivation.

• Circular, raised, purple to reddish-brown lesions on leaves.
• Older spots become greenish-gray, resembling lichen.
• Most lesions develop on upper leaf surface; rarely harmful to plant vigor.

Disease Cycle:

• Alga produces rust-colored spore-like bodies on leaf spots.
• Dispersed by wind or rain; favored by high humidity and poor drainage.

Management:

• Avoid plant stress and poorly drained sites.
• Promote air circulation; prune and destroy infected parts.
• Apply Bordeaux mixture; improve soil nutrition (NPK).

• Small, oval, pale yellow-green spots on young leaves.
• Spots enlarge, turn brown/gray with concentric rings and black dots.
• Leads to defoliation; affects leaves of all ages.

Disease Cycle:

• Fungal spores in black dots on lesions.
• Spread by rain splash; infect new leaves under wet conditions.

Management:

• Avoid plant stress; ensure adequate spacing for air flow.
• Spray Copper Oxychloride or Bordeaux mixture (0.1%) in winter and summer.

• Pinhole-sized spots on young leaves (<1 month old).
• Spots enlarge, become transparent, then light brown.
• Blister-like symptoms with water-soaked zones; blisters turn white and velvety, then brown.
• Young stems may bend, break, or die.

Disease Cycle:

• Continuous cycle in wet conditions; spores dispersed by wind.
• Direct penetration of leaf tissue; symptoms in 10 days.

Management:

• Prune and destroy affected leaves and shoots.
• Spray Bordeaux mixture, Copper Oxychloride (0.1%), or triazole fungicides (e.g., hexaconazole).
• Apply fungicides at 5-day intervals during rainy season.

• Black, hair-like fungal threads on upper branches and twigs.
• Rapid leaf drop due to volatile substances produced by fungus.

Disease Cycle:

• Spread via extension of hair-like threads from infected to healthy twigs.

Management:

• Remove and destroy crop debris.
• Prune out infected or dead branches.

• Small, brown, irregular spots on flower petals.
• Whole flower turns brown and drops prematurely.

Disease Cycle:

• Emerges in early spring during high moisture periods.

Management:

• Remove infected flowers and crop debris.
• Apply soil drenches with suitable fungicides.

• Browning and drooping of leaves; shoots dry and die.
• Cankers form on branches; tip dieback.

Disease Cycle:

• Spores produced on dead branches; spread by rain splash.
• Entry through wounds; survives on pruned branches.

Management:

• Plant in well-drained, acidic soils.
• Remove diseased twigs below cankered areas; disinfect tools.
• Apply protective fungicides during wet weather.

• Originates from dead leaves above soil; spreads to roots.
• Star-like mycelium under bark; mycelium surrounds stem base.
• Swollen ring of tissue above dead patch.

Management:

• Remove and destroy infected plants.
• Practice clean cultivation; remove fallen leaves.
• Dig trenches around infected bushes to expose soil to sunlight.

• Sudden yellowing and wilting of leaves; branch tip dieback.
• Gray blotches and sunken cankers on bark and stem.
• Cankers girdle stem; upper parts lose vigor and die.

Comments:

• Fungus enters through wounds; symptoms worsen in hot, dry weather.

Management:

• Plant in well-drained, acidic soils.
• Remove diseased twigs below cankers; disinfect tools.
• Apply protective fungicides during wet periods.

• Yellowing leaves; poor growth; wilting; discolored roots; rapid plant death.

Comments:

• Favored by poorly drained, warm soils.

Management:

• Plant in well-drained soils; avoid waterlogging.
• Apply appropriate fungicides to protect plants.

• Yellowing foliage; wilting or sudden death of plant parts.
• Withered leaves remain attached; red discoloration of roots; whitish mycelium visible.

Comments:

• Spread by mycelial strands in soil.

Management:

• Remove infected bushes and adjacent symptomatic plants.
• Remove all living/dead roots and stumps; destroy by burning.
• Treat surrounding bushes to prevent spread.

• Apply Benomyl or Copper Oxychloride (0.01%).
• Use botanical extracts (e.g., Azadirachta, A. nilagirica) at 10% concentration.
• Apply biocontrol agents (Bacillus sp., Pseudomonas sp., Trichoderma viride).

• Use Bacillus megaterium as a plant growth promoter and biocontrol agent.
• Induces systemic resistance and reduces disease incidence.

• Apply antagonistic fungi (e.g., Aspergillus niger, Trichoderma atroviride, T. citrinoviride) as foliar sprays.
• Reduces symptom severity and disease index.

• Combine cultural, chemical, and biological control methods for sustainable management.
• Use resistant varieties where available.
• Maintain field hygiene: remove debris, prune infected parts, ensure proper spacing.
• Apply fungicides judiciously to avoid resistance.
• Promote beneficial microorganisms for biocontrol.

• Weather modification is the intentional alteration of atmospheric processes to influence local weather.
• Artificial rain making and cloud seeding are primary techniques used to enhance precipitation.
• Applications include drought mitigation, hail suppression, and fog dispersal.

• Clouds are classified as warm (cloud top temperature > 0°C) or cold (cloud top temperature < 0°C).
• Precipitation requires condensation nuclei, which differ for warm and cold clouds.
• Hygroscopic materials are used for warm clouds; ice-forming nuclei for cold clouds.

• Cloud seeding research began in the 1940s with Vincent Schaefer’s experiments using ice crystals.
• Silver iodide was later adopted due to its structural similarity to ice.
• Programs expanded globally but faced challenges in proving consistent effectiveness.

• Cloud seeding is the process of introducing artificial nuclei to induce precipitation from rain-bearing clouds.
• Methods vary for warm and cold clouds, using aircraft or ground-based generators.
• Main goals: increase rainfall, augment snowfall, mitigate hail, and disperse fog.

• Hygroscopic seeding targets warm clouds to enhance droplet coalescence.
• Glaciogenic seeding targets cold clouds to promote ice crystal formation.
• Seeding agents can be delivered by aircraft or ground-based systems.

• Increasing precipitation for agriculture and water supply.
• Augmenting snowfall to boost water resources and hydropower.
• Mitigating hail damage to crops and property.
• Dispersing fog to improve visibility and safety.

• Dry Ice Seeding: Uses solid CO2 pellets released from aircraft over cloud tops.
• Silver Iodide Seeding: Releases AgI particles as smoke from aircraft or ground generators.

Dry Ice Seeding:

• Dry ice forms ice crystals as it falls through the cloud, inducing precipitation.
• Requires large quantities and specialized aircraft; less economical.

Silver Iodide Seeding:

• AgI acts as efficient ice nuclei at temperatures below –5°C.
• Requires smaller quantities; can be dispersed over larger areas.

• Large water droplets (25 mm) are sprayed from aircraft to initiate coalescence.

Common Salt Technique:

• Sodium chloride (NaCl) is used as a hygroscopic agent, dispersed as solution or solid.
• Spraying can be done by aircraft, ground generators, or balloon bursts.

• Cloud seeding can enhance precipitation, but effectiveness varies with cloud type and atmospheric conditions.
• Potential risks include environmental concerns and unintended weather impacts.
• Further research is needed to improve reliability and assess long-term effects.

• Plant propagation occurs via sexual (seeds) and asexual (vegetative) methods.
• A seed is a mature, fertilized ovule and the reproductive unit of flowering plants.
• Seeds are essential for crop establishment and genetic diversity.

• Seed rate: Quantity of seed required per unit area for desired plant population.
• Depends on spacing, test weight, and germination percentage.

Seed Rate Formula:

• Seed rate (kg/ha) = [Plant population/ha × Seeds/hill × Test weight (g) × 100] / [1000 × 1000 × Germination %]

• Common sowing methods: Broadcasting, Dibbling, Sowing behind plough, Drill sowing, Transplanting.
• Choice of method depends on crop type, seed size, and field conditions.

• Randomly scattering seeds over the soil surface.

Features:

• Suitable for small to medium seeds (e.g., sesame, sorghum).
• Easy, quick, and labor-saving; commonly used in India.
• Criss-cross sowing improves uniformity.

Disadvantages:

• Uneven seed distribution and depth.
• Higher seed rate required.
• Lower germination and risk of lodging.

• Placing seeds in holes at specific depth and spacing.

Features:

• Used for medium to large seeds (e.g., maize, cotton, sunflower).
• Practiced on ridges, furrows, or beds.
• Facilitates uniform population and better germination.

Advantages:

• Reduced seed rate.
• Enables mechanization (weeding, harvesting).

Disadvantages:

• Costlier and more time-consuming than broadcasting.

• Seeds dropped in furrows opened by plough, then covered by soil.

Features:

• Manual or mechanical methods available.
• Ensures uniform depth and spacing.
• Suitable for crops like groundnut, redgram, cowpea.

• Dropping seeds at definite depth using sowing implements (seed drills).

Features:

• Maintains uniform depth and population.
• Fertilizer application possible during sowing.
• Suitable for intercropping.

Disadvantages:

• Requires more time, energy, and cost.

• Raising seedlings in nursery, then transplanting to main field.

Features:

• Ensures optimum plant population and crop intensification.
• Nursery area is about 1/10th of total field area.

Disadvantages:

• Labor-intensive and expensive.
• Transplanting shock may occur (5–7 days of slow growth).

• Process where radicle emerges from seed, initiating seedling growth.

Key Factors Affecting Germination:

• Soil type, texture, structure, and microorganisms.
• Moisture availability and excess can cause rotting.
• Temperature: Optimum range required for each crop.
• Light: Red light (662 nm) promotes, far-red (730 nm) inhibits germination.
• Soil tilth and sowing depth (3–5 cm for most crops).

• Good crop establishment ensures optimum plant population and yield.
• Plant population: Number of plants per unit area in the field.
• Optimum population maximizes yield per area; excess or deficit reduces yield.

• Plant size: Larger plants need wider spacing (e.g., cotton vs. rice).
• Elasticity: Indeterminate plants tolerate wider population range.
• Foraging area: Early soil cover maximizes sunlight interception.
• Dry matter partitioning: Higher density increases canopy and dry matter.
• Crop and variety: Population varies by crop and variety (e.g., rice, maize, cotton).

• Time of sowing: Weather, day length, and temperature affect population needs.
• Rainfall/irrigation: Lower population under rainfed, higher under irrigated conditions.
• Fertilizer application: High population utilizes nutrients better; low fertility limits yield at high density.
• Seed rate: Higher in broadcasting, lower in line sowing/transplanting.

• Arrangement of plants in rows and columns to optimize resource use.

Types:

• Random: Unequal spacing, common in broadcasting.
• Square: Equal spacing in both directions (e.g., coconut, banana).
• Rectangular: Rows wider than plant spacing; includes solid row, paired row, skip row.
• Triangular: Used for wide-spaced crops (e.g., coconut, mango).

Importance:

• Ensures efficient use of light, water, nutrients, and space.

• Selection of appropriate seed rate and sowing method is crucial for crop establishment.
• Optimum plant population and geometry maximize yield and resource efficiency.
• Understanding genetic and environmental factors aids in effective crop management.