Category: PPT Agriculture

• Tomato is affected by several major insect pests worldwide.
• Pests cause direct damage and act as vectors for viral diseases.
• Effective management is crucial for yield and quality.

• Major pest of tomato and other crops (e.g., pigeon pea, chickpea).

• Caterpillar: Varies in color, radiating hairs, brown to greenish with dark lines.
• Moth: Medium-sized, light yellowish-brown, forewings with dark spot, hindwings pale with black border.

Life Cycle:

• Eggs laid on tender plant parts.
• Larval stage: 18–25 days.
• Pupates in soil.
• Total life cycle: 30–40 days.

• Young larvae feed on foliage; older larvae bore into fruits.
• Creates circular holes in fruits, feeds on inner contents.
• Damaged fruits often infected by secondary pathogens.
• One larva can destroy 2–8 fruits.

• Collect and destroy infested fruits and larvae.
• Deep ploughing after harvest to expose pupae.
• Intercrop tomato with marigold (1:16 rows).

Biological Control:

• Release Trichogramma spp. and Chrysoperla carnea.
• Spray Bacillus thuringiensis (2g/lit).
• Use Helicoverpa NPV (HaNPV) @ 250 LE/ha.

Chemical Control:

• Use pheromone traps (Helilure) @ 12/ha.
• Spray recommended insecticides: Azadirachtin, Indoxacarb, Flubendiamide, Novaluron, Phosalone, Quinalphos.

• Larva: Minute, orange-yellow, apodous maggots.
• Adult: Small, pale yellow flies.

Life Cycle:

• Eggs laid singly on upper leaf surface.
• Larval period: 7–10 days; pupates in soil or leaves.
• Total life cycle: ~3 weeks.

• Larvae mine between leaf epidermal layers, creating serpentine trails.
• Severe infestation causes leaf drying and drop.

Management:

• Collect and destroy mined leaves.
• Spray neem seed kernel extract (NSKE) 5%.

• Larvae mine leaves, stems, and fruits.
• Causes leaf necrosis, fruit damage, and yield loss.

Management:

• Use pheromone traps, biological control agents, and selective insecticides.

• Eggs: Pear-shaped, light yellow.
• Nymphs: Oval, scale-like, greenish-white.
• Adults: Tiny, white, scale-like.

• Nymphs and adults suck sap, causing chlorosis and leaf curling.
• Vector of tomato leaf curl virus.

Management:

• Uproot and destroy infected plants.
• Remove alternate weed hosts (e.g., Abutilon indicum).
• Use yellow sticky traps (12/ha).
• Apply carbofuran or recommended insecticides: Dimethoate, Malathion, Oxydemeton-methyl, Thiamethoxam.

• Nymphs and adults suck sap, causing yellowing and deformation.
• Honeydew secretion leads to sooty mould, reducing photosynthesis.

Management:

• Seed treatment with imidacloprid or thiamethoxam.
• Use yellow sticky traps.

• Nymphs: Yellowish.
• Adults: Dark, fringed wings.

Nature of Damage:

• Silvery streaks on leaves, bud necrosis, flower drop.
• Vector of tomato spotted wilt virus.

• Uproot and destroy diseased plants.
• Use yellow sticky traps (15/ha).
• Release Chrysoperla carnea larvae (10,000/ha).
• Spray methyl demeton 25 EC or dimethoate 30 EC @ 1 L/ha.

• Eggs: Hyaline, globular, laid in masses.
• Nymphs: Yellowish.
• Adults: Small, red.

Nature of Damage:

• Leaves turn reddish-brown, bronzed, and dry.
• Webbing on leaves; reduced flower and fruit formation.

• Spray wettable sulphur 50 WP @ 2g/lit.
• Spray dicofol 18.5 EC @ 2.5 ml/lit.

• Combine cultural, biological, and chemical methods for effective pest control.
• Monitor pest populations regularly.
• Use resistant varieties and crop rotation.
• Minimize pesticide use to prevent resistance and protect beneficial organisms.

• Tomato is susceptible to several insect pests causing significant yield loss.
• Pests affect all growth stages: seedling, vegetative, flowering, and fruiting.
• Effective management requires correct identification and integrated approaches.

• Caterpillars: Varying colors, radiating hairs, brown to greenish with dark lines.
• Moth: Stout, light yellowish-brown, forewings with dark spot, hindwings smoky white.

• Eggs laid on tender plant parts.
• Larval stage: 18–25 days, pupates in soil.
• Total life cycle: 30–40 days.

Nature of Damage:

• Young larvae feed on foliage; older larvae bore into fruits.
• Circular holes in fruits; internal feeding causes rotting.
• One larva can damage multiple fruits.

• Collect and destroy infested fruits and larvae.
• Intercrop with marigold (1:16 rows) to attract egg-laying adults.
• Deep ploughing after harvest exposes pupae to predators.
• Install pheromone traps (Helilure) at 12/ha.
• Use resistant varieties: Rupali, Roma, Pusa Red Plume.
• Spray Bacillus thuringiensis (2g/lit).

• Release Trichogramma pretiosum or T. chilonis for egg parasitism.
• Spray HaNPV @ 250 LE/ha for larval control.
• Release Chrysoperla carnea larvae for biological control.

Chemical Control:

• Azadirachtin 1% EC: 2 ml/lit
• Indoxacarb 14.5% SC: 8 ml/10 lit
• Flubendiamide 20 WG: 5 g/10 lit
• Novaluron 10% EC: 7.5 ml/10 lit
• Phosalone 35% EC: 13 ml/10 lit
• Quinalphos 25% EC: 1 ml/lit

• Larva: Minute, orange-yellow, apodous maggots.
• Pupa: Yellowish-brown, found in soil or leaves.
• Adult: Pale yellow, small fly.

Life Cycle:

• Eggs laid singly on upper leaf surface.
• Larval period: 7–10 days; total cycle ~3 weeks.

Nature of Damage:

• Maggots mine between leaf epidermal layers.
• Serpentine mines visible; severe cases cause leaf drying and drop.

Management:

• Collect and destroy mined leaves.
• Spray neem seed kernel extract (NSKE) 5%.

• Small greyish-brown moth; larvae mine leaves, stems, and fruits.

Nature of Damage:

• Leaf mining, fruit boring, and stem tunneling.
• Leads to leaf necrosis, fruit rot, and yield loss.

Management:

• Use pheromone traps for monitoring and mass trapping.
• Remove and destroy infested plant parts.
• Apply Bacillus thuringiensis or recommended insecticides.

• Eggs: Pear-shaped, light yellow.
• Nymphs: Oval, scale-like, greenish-white.
• Adults: Tiny, white, scale-like.

Nature of Damage:

• Nymphs and adults suck sap, causing chlorosis and leaf curling.
• Vector of tomato leaf curl virus.

Management:

• Uproot and destroy diseased plants.
• Remove alternate weed hosts (e.g., Abutilon indicum).
• Install yellow sticky traps (12/ha).
• Apply carbofuran 3% G @ 40 kg/ha or recommended insecticides.

Chemical Control:

• Dimethoate 30% EC: 1 ml/lit
• Malathion 50% EC: 1.5 ml/lit
• Oxydemeton-methyl 25% EC: 1 ml/lit
• Thiamethoxam 25% WG: 4 ml/10 lit

• Nymphs and adults suck sap from leaves and stems.
• Infested plants become yellow, deformed, and may dry up.
• Honeydew secretion leads to sooty mould, reducing photosynthesis.

Management:

• Seed treatment with imidacloprid or thiamethoxam.
• Use yellow sticky traps.

• Nymphs: Yellowish.
• Adults: Dark, fringed wings.

Nature of Damage:

• Silvery streaks on leaves, flower drop, bud necrosis.
• Vector of tomato spotted wilt virus.

Management:

• Uproot and destroy diseased plants.
• Install yellow sticky traps (15/ha).
• Release Chrysoperla carnea larvae (10,000/ha).
• Spray methyl demeton 25 EC or dimethoate 30 EC @ 1 lit/ha.

• Eggs: Hyaline, globular, laid in masses.
• Nymphs: Yellowish.
• Adults: Small, red.

Nature of Damage:

• Leaves turn reddish-brown, bronzed, and dry.
• Webbing on leaves; severe cases affect flowering and fruiting.

Management:

• Spray wettable sulphur 50 WP (2g/lit).
• Spray dicofol 18.5 EC (2.5 ml/lit).

• Accurate pest identification is crucial for effective management.
• Combine cultural, biological, and chemical methods for sustainable control.
• Monitor pest populations using traps and field scouting.
• Use resistant varieties and timely interventions to minimize losses.

• Tomato is affected by several insect pests causing significant yield losses.
• Pests damage leaves, stems, flowers, and fruits, reducing quality and market value.
• Effective management requires knowledge of pest identification, biology, and control methods.
• Integrated pest management (IPM) is recommended for sustainable control.

• Major pest of tomato; also attacks tur, gram, and other crops.
• Widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions.

Identification:

• Caterpillar: Varying color, radiating hairs, brown to greenish with dark lines.
• Moth: Stout, light yellowish-brown, forewings with dark spot, hindwings smoky white with black border.

Life Cycle:

• Eggs laid on tender plant parts.
• Larval period: 18–25 days; pupates in soil.
• Total life cycle: ~30–40 days.

Nature of Damage:

• Larvae bore circular holes in fruits, feed on inner contents.
• Secondary infection by fungi and bacteria common.
• One larva can damage multiple fruits.

• Collect and destroy infested fruits and larvae.
• Intercrop tomato with marigold (1:16 rows) to attract and trap adults.
• Plough fields post-harvest to expose and destroy pupae.
• Install pheromone traps (Helilure) at 12/ha.
• Grow resistant varieties (e.g., Rupali, Roma, Pusa Red Plume).
• Spray Bacillus thuringiensis 2g/litre.
• Release Trichogramma pretiosum or T. chilonis for egg parasitism.
• Spray HaNPV @ 250 LE/ha for biological control.
• Release Chrysoperla carnea larvae for predator control.

Chemical Control:

• Azadirachtin 1% EC: 2 ml/litre
• Indoxacarb 14.5% SC: 8 ml/10 litres
• Flubendiamide 20 WG: 5 g/10 litres
• Novaluron 10% EC: 7.5 ml/10 litres
• Phosalone 35% EC: 13 ml/10 litres
• Quinalphos 25% EC: 1 ml/litre

• Larva: Minute, orange-yellow, legless maggots.
• Pupa: Yellowish-brown, found in soil or leaves.
• Adult: Small, pale yellow flies.

Life Cycle:

• Eggs laid singly on upper leaf surface.
• Larval period: 7–10 days; pupates in soil or leaves.
• Total life cycle: ~3 weeks.

Nature of Damage:

• Maggots mine between leaf epidermal layers, creating serpentine trails.
• Severe infestation causes leaf drying and drop.

Management:

• Collect and destroy mined leaves.
• Spray neem seed kernel extract (NSKE) 5%.

• Small grey-brown moth; larvae are cream to greenish with dark head.

Nature of Damage:

• Larvae mine leaves, stems, and fruits, causing blotches and galleries.
• Fruit damage leads to secondary infections and yield loss.

Management:

• Use pheromone traps for monitoring and mass trapping.
• Remove and destroy infested plant parts.
• Apply biologicals (e.g., Bacillus thuringiensis).
• Use selective insecticides as per recommendations.

• Eggs: Pear-shaped, light yellow.
• Nymphs: Oval, scale-like, greenish-white.
• Adults: Tiny, white, scale-like insects.

Nature of Damage:

• Nymphs and adults suck sap, causing chlorosis and leaf curling.
• Vector of tomato leaf curl virus.

Management:

• Uproot and destroy diseased plants.
• Remove alternate weed hosts (e.g., Abutilon indicum).
• Use yellow sticky traps (12/ha).
• Apply carbofuran 3% G @ 40 kg/ha or recommended insecticides.

Chemical Control:

• Dimethoate 30% EC: 1 ml/litre
• Malathion 50% EC: 1.5 ml/litre
• Oxydemeton-methyl 25% EC: 1 ml/litre
• Thiamethoxam 25% WG: 4 ml/10 litres

• Nymphs and adults suck sap from leaves and stems.
• Plants turn yellow, become deformed, and may dry up.
• Honeydew secretion promotes sooty mould, reducing photosynthesis.

Management:

• Seed treatment with imidacloprid or thiamethoxam.
• Use yellow sticky traps.
• Spray recommended systemic insecticides if needed.

• Nymphs: Yellowish.
• Adults: Dark with fringed wings.

Nature of Damage:

• Silvery streaks on leaves, premature flower drop, bud necrosis.
• Vector of tomato spotted wilt virus.

Management:

• Uproot and destroy diseased plants.
• Use yellow sticky traps (15/ha).
• Release Chrysoperla carnea larvae (10,000/ha).
• Spray methyl demeton 25 EC or dimethoate 30 EC @ 1 litre/ha.

• Eggs: Hyaline, globular, laid in masses.
• Nymphs: Yellowish.
• Adults: Small, red.

Nature of Damage:

• Leaves become reddish-brown, bronzed, and dry.
• Webbing on leaves; severe infestations reduce flower and fruit set.

Management:

• Spray wettable sulphur 50 WP @ 2 g/litre.
• Spray dicofol 18.5 EC @ 2.5 ml/litre.

• Monitor pest populations regularly using traps and field scouting.
• Adopt cultural, mechanical, biological, and chemical control methods in combination.
• Use resistant varieties and maintain field hygiene.
• Apply pesticides judiciously to avoid resistance and residue problems.
• Promote natural enemies and minimize ecological disruption.

• Grapes (Vitis vinifera) are a major fruit crop grown globally for fresh consumption, raisins, and wine.
• Optimal growth requires balanced nutrition, pest and disease management, and proper cultural practices.
• Understanding disorders and their management is crucial for high yield and quality.

• Common deficiencies: Nitrogen, Potassium, Magnesium, Zinc, Boron, Iron.
• Symptoms include chlorosis, poor fruit set, stunted growth, and leaf necrosis.
• Soil and leaf analysis help diagnose nutrient disorders.

• Apply recommended fertilizers based on soil and tissue analysis.
• Use foliar sprays for micronutrient deficiencies (e.g., ZnSO4 for zinc, Fe-EDTA for iron).
• Incorporate organic manures and green manures to improve soil health.
• Maintain proper irrigation to aid nutrient uptake.

• Gibberellic acid (GA3) used to increase berry size and improve cluster looseness.
• Apply 25 ppm GA3 at calyptra fall and pepper stages for seedless varieties.
• Potassium chloride (0.2%) sprayed at 20 and 40 days after berry set for uniform ripening.

• Berry cracking: Caused by irregular watering or boron deficiency.
• Uneven ripening: Linked to potassium deficiency or hormonal imbalance.
• Poor fruit set: Often due to zinc or boron deficiency.

• Apply carbofuran 60 g/vine one week before pruning; irrigate well.
• Use neem cake 200 g/vine and Pseudomonas fluorescens for biocontrol.

Flea Beetles

• Spray phosalone 2 ml/l after pruning; repeat 2–3 times as needed.

Thrips

• Spray dimethoate 2 ml/l for control.

Mealy Bug

• Spray monocrotophos 2 ml/l; use sticky bands and natural predators for IPM.

• Caused by Uncinula necator.
• Symptoms: White powdery growth on leaves, shoots, and berries.
• Management: Sulphur dusting @ 6–12 kg/ha; use resistant varieties.

Downy Mildew

• Caused by Plasmopara viticola.
• Symptoms: Yellowish oil spots on leaves, white downy growth on lower surface.
• Management: Spray 1% Bordeaux mixture; ensure good air circulation.

• Harvest only after full ripening for best quality.
• Heat requirement: 2900–3600 degree days for most varieties.
• Average yields: Seedless – 15 t/ha/yr; Muscat – 30 t/ha/yr; Pachadraksha – 40 t/ha/yr; Anab-e-Shahi/Arka hybrids – 20 t/ha/yr.
• Room temperature storage: Up to 7 days; cold storage (-2 to -1.5°C): 40–45 days.

• Raisins are a major by-product in grape-growing regions.
• Grapes with 17° Brix and above are suitable; 20–23° Brix is standard for high-quality raisins.
• Proper drying and storage are essential to prevent spoilage.

• Grapes belong to the family Vitaceae; scientific name: Vitis vinifera.
• Originated near the Caspian Sea (Armenia region).
• Viticulture refers to grape cultivation.
• Over 10,000 grape varieties exist worldwide.
• Grapes contribute significantly to global fruit production.

• Prefer semi-arid, subtropical regions with warm, dry summers and cool winters.
• Require long, dry summers for proper fruit maturity and ripening.
• High humidity and summer rains increase fungal disease risk.
• Rest period (dormancy) occurs in winter in temperate regions.
• In tropical regions, vines may have two growth cycles per year.

• Best grown in well-drained, deep loamy soils (minimum 1 m depth).
• Optimal soil pH: 6.5–7.0.
• Soils should be fertile and rich in organic matter.
• Poor drainage or waterlogging adversely affects vine health.

• Primarily propagated by hardwood cuttings from one-year-old healthy canes.
• Cuttings: 25–30 cm long, lower cut below a bud, upper cut above a bud.
• Callusing in moist sand before nursery planting improves rooting.
• Grafting and budding used for specific rootstock requirements (e.g., disease resistance).

• Phylloxera resistance: Vitis riparia, V. rupestris
• Nematode resistance: Dogridge, Salt Creek
• Salinity tolerance: Solonis, 1616

• Trenches (0.6 m width/depth) or pits (1 m3) prepared for planting.
• Apply well-decomposed FYM, compost, or green manure before planting.
• Spacing: 3 × 2 m (Muscat), 4 × 3 m (other varieties).
• Plant rooted cuttings during June–July.

• Irrigate immediately after planting, then weekly.
• Withhold irrigation 15 days before pruning and harvest.
• Drip irrigation is preferred for efficient water use.

• Apply FYM and green manure before planting and after pruning.
• Fertilizer doses vary by variety and vine age (see table below).
• Apply half the potassium dose after pruning, remainder after 60 days.
• Foliar spray: 0.1% boric acid + 0.2% ZnSO4 + 1% urea before flowering and 10 days later.

Example Fertilizer Schedule (kg/vine/year):

• Tipping shoots and tying clusters after fruit set.
• Remove tendrils and nip axillary/terminal buds at 12–15 buds.
• Thin compact bunches by removing ~20% berries at pea stage.
• Dip clusters in 0.5 ppm brassinosteroid + 25 ppm GA3 solution 10–12 days after fruit set.

• Grapes require specific soil, climate, and management for optimal yield and quality.
• Proper propagation, nutrient, and water management are essential.
• Special cultural practices improve fruit quality and market value.

• Citrus crops are prone to various nutrient deficiencies, physiological disorders, pests, and diseases.
• Proper identification and management are crucial for healthy growth and high yield.
• Integrated management practices combine cultural, chemical, and biological methods.

• Sudden temperature changes and moisture stress.
• Cracking may be radial or transverse.
• Secondary infection by Aspergillus, Fusarium, or Alternaria possible.

Management:

• Apply light irrigation at frequent intervals.
• Apply potassium during fruit development.

• Juice vesicles become hard, enlarged, and opaque grayish.
• Pulp density increases; juice has more minerals, less carbohydrate and organic acid.
• Lignification of juice cells forms sclerenchyma.

Causes:

• High humidity, temperature fluctuations, excess nitrogen, large fruit size, susceptible rootstocks.
• Young trees and mandarins on Jatti Khatti rootstock are more prone.

Management:

• Avoid excess moisture.
• Spray lime (20 kg in 450 L water).
• Spray zinc (0.5%) and copper (0.5%).

• Exposed fruit develops yellow patches, turning brown and hard.
• Inner portion becomes desiccated and discoloured.
• Fruits malformed, low juice content, may drop; leaves turn brown.

Management:

• Spray lime solution (20 g/L) before summer.
• Regulate irrigation to reduce temperature.
• Mulch tree basins.

• Stunted growth, leaf mottling, yellowing, and shedding.
• Excess flowering, poor fruit set, sun blotching of fruits.

Causes:

• Calcium carbonate or clay in soil, rootstock-scion incompatibility, salinity, waterlogging, poor orchard management.

Management:

• Ensure proper drainage and orchard management.
• Use resistant rootstocks and disease-free budwood.

• Spray dimethoate 2 ml/L + neem oil 3%.

Leaf Caterpillar:

• Apply endosulfan 2 ml/L for moderate to severe infestation.

Sucking Pests (Whitefly):

• Spray quinalphos 2 ml/L.

Nematodes:

• Apply carbofuran 75 g/tree or Pseudomonas fluorescens 20 g/tree.

• Prune dried twigs and spray 0.3% copper oxychloride.

Scab:

• Spray 1% Bordeaux mixture.

Tristeza Virus:

• Remove and destroy infected trees.
• Spray monocrotophos 1 ml/L to control aphid vectors.
• Use pre-immunized seedlings for planting.

• Acid lime starts bearing from the 3rd year after planting.
• Main crop harvested at different times across regions; average yield is 20–25 kg/tree/year.
• Treat fruits with 4% wax emulsion and pre-pack in 200-gauge polythene bags (1% ventilation) to extend shelf life over 10 days.
• Store limes at 18°C for best results.
• Low-cost storage tanks with double-layer brickwork and wet sand interspace can be used for storage.

• Combine cultural, chemical, and biological methods for sustainable citrus production.
• Regular monitoring and early detection of disorders, pests, and diseases.
• Use resistant varieties and healthy planting material.
• Maintain balanced nutrition and proper irrigation.
• Adopt proper pruning, sanitation, and post-harvest handling.

• Tomato is susceptible to several insect pests causing significant yield loss.
• Major pests include fruit borer, leaf miner, whitefly, aphids, thrips, and red spider mite.
• Effective management requires correct identification and understanding of pest biology.

• Family: Noctuidae; Order: Lepidoptera

Economic Importance:

• Serious pest in tropical and subtropical regions.
• Damages tomato, tur, gram, and other crops.

Identification:

• Caterpillar: Varying color, radiating hairs, brown to greenish with dark lines.
• Moth: Medium-sized, light yellowish brown, forewings with dark spot, hindwings pale with black border.

• Eggs laid on tender plant parts.
• Larval stage lasts 18–25 days; pupates in soil.
• Total life cycle: 30–40 days.

Nature of Damage:

• Young larvae feed on foliage; older larvae bore into fruits.
• Circular holes in fruits; internal feeding leads to secondary infections.
• One larva can damage 2–8 fruits.

• Collect and destroy infested fruits and larvae.
• Deep ploughing after harvest to expose pupae.
• Intercrop with marigold (1:16 rows) to attract adults.

Biological:

• Release Trichogramma spp. and Chrysoperla carnea.
• Spray Bacillus thuringiensis (2g/lit) or HaNPV (250 LE/ha).

Chemical:

• Use pheromone traps (Helilure) at 12/ha.
• Spray recommended insecticides: Azadirachtin, Indoxacarb, Flubendiamide, Novaluron, Phosalone, Quinalphos.

• Family: Agromyzidae; Order: Diptera

Identification:

• Larva: Minute, orange-yellow, apodous maggots.
• Adult: Pale yellow, small fly.

Life Cycle:

• Eggs laid singly on upper leaf surface.
• Larval period: 7–10 days; pupates in soil or leaves.
• Total life cycle: ~3 weeks.

Damage:

• Larvae mine between leaf epidermis, causing serpentine trails.
• Severe cases cause leaf drying and drop.

• Collect and destroy mined leaves.
• Spray neem seed kernel extract (NSKE) 5%.
• Practice crop rotation and avoid overuse of insecticides to conserve natural enemies.

• Family: Gelechiidae; Order: Lepidoptera

Identification:

• Small, greyish-brown moth; larvae mine leaves, stems, and fruits.

Damage:

• Leaf mines, galleries in stems, and fruit damage.
• Can cause severe yield loss if unmanaged.

Management:

• Use pheromone traps for monitoring.
• Release natural enemies (Trichogramma spp.).
• Apply Bacillus thuringiensis or selective insecticides as needed.

• Family: Aleyrodidae; Order: Hemiptera

Identification:

• Eggs: Pear-shaped, light yellow.
• Nymphs: Oval, scale-like, greenish white.
• Adults: Tiny, white, scale-like.

Damage:

• Nymphs and adults suck sap, causing chlorosis and leaf curling.
• Vector of tomato leaf curl virus.

• Uproot and destroy infected plants.
• Remove alternate weed hosts (e.g., Abutilon indicum).
• Use yellow sticky traps (12/ha).
• Apply carbofuran 3% G @ 40 kg/ha or recommended insecticides: Dimethoate, Malathion, Oxydemeton-methyl, Thiamethoxam.

• Family: Aphididae; Order: Hemiptera

Identification:

• Small, soft-bodied insects, green or black.

Damage:

• Nymphs and adults suck sap, causing yellowing, deformation, and drying.
• Honeydew secretion leads to sooty mould, reducing photosynthesis.

Management:

• Seed treatment with imidacloprid or thiamethoxam.
• Use yellow sticky traps.
• Encourage natural predators (ladybird beetles, lacewings).

• Family: Thripidae; Order: Thysanoptera

Identification:

• Nymphs: Yellowish; Adults: Dark with fringed wings.

Damage:

• Silvery streaks on leaves, bud necrosis, flower drop.
• Vector of tomato spotted wilt virus.

Management:

• Uproot and destroy diseased plants.
• Use yellow sticky traps (15/ha).
• Release Chrysoperla carnea larvae (10,000/ha).
• Spray methyl demeton or dimethoate as needed.

• Family: Tetranychidae; Order: Acarina

Identification:

• Eggs: Hyaline, globular, laid in masses.
• Nymphs: Yellowish; Adults: Small, red.

Damage:

• Leaves turn reddish-brown, bronzed, and dry.
• Webbing on leaves; reduced flower and fruit set.

Management:

• Spray wettable sulphur 50 WP (2g/lit) or dicofol 18.5 EC (2.5 ml/lit).

• Combine cultural, biological, and chemical methods for effective pest control.
• Monitor pest populations regularly using traps and field scouting.
• Promote use of resistant varieties and natural enemies.
• Apply insecticides judiciously to avoid resistance and conserve beneficial insects.

• Citrus spp. belong to the family Rutaceae.
• Includes oranges, lemons, limes, pummelo, and grapefruit.
• Originated in tropical and subtropical Southeast Asia.
• Third most important fruit group in India after mango and banana.

• Acid group: Acid lime (C. aurantifolia), Lemon (C. limon), Citron (C. medica), etc.
• Orange group: Sweet orange (C. sinensis), Sour orange (C. aurantium).
• Mandarin group: C. reticulata, C. unshiu, C. deliciosa, Kinnow.
• Pummelo and grapefruit group: Pummelo (C. grandis), Grapefruit (C. paradisi), Kumquat (Fortunella sp.).
• Hybrids: Citrange, Tangelo, Citrangequat, used mainly as rootstocks.

• Best grown in subtropical climates, 500–1500 m MSL elevation.
• Optimal rainfall: 150–250 cm/year; mild winters preferred.
• Ideal soil: Medium/light loam, pH 5.5–6.5, well-drained.
• Acid lime prefers pH 6.5–7.0; sensitive to frost.

• Kodai Orange (C. reticulata): Vigorous, small, loose rind, heavy seeded.
• Nagpur Santra (C. reticulata): Leading commercial mandarin, fine texture, juicy, matures Jan–Feb.
• Coorg Mandarin (C. reticulata): Medium-large, bright orange, regular bearer.
• Satsuma Mandarin (C. unshiu): Japanese, seedless, thin rind, excellent quality.
• Kinnow (King × Willow leaf): Hybrid, high yield, export potential.
• Khasi Mandarin: North-East India, excellent quality, polyembryonic seeds.

• Seed propagation: Used for most mandarins; select true-to-type, healthy seeds.
• Vegetative propagation: T-budding on rootstocks like Rangpur lime, Cleopatra, Rough lemon, Troyer citrange.
• Budded plants bear earlier and are more uniform.
• Rootstocks selected for disease resistance and soil adaptability.

• Planting season: May–June and September–October (monsoon period).
• Spacing: 6 × 6 m for most mandarins; 5–6 m for acid lime.
• Pit size: 75 × 75 × 75 cm, filled with FYM, sand, and topsoil.
• High-density planting possible for Kinnow using Troyer citrange rootstock.

• Train trees to single stem with 4–6 main branches.
• Remove water shoots, rootstock sprouts, and laterals up to 45–50 cm height.
• Prune bearing trees after harvest to remove dead, diseased, and weak branches.
• Root pruning sometimes used for crop regulation.

• Mandarins may flower 1–3 times/year (Ambe, Mrig, Hast Bahar).
• Bahar treatment: Expose roots and withhold water to induce rest and synchronized flowering.
• Not recommended for light soils or North India.

• Apply FYM and NPK fertilizers in two splits (June and October).
• Micronutrients: Zn, Mn, Fe, Mg, B, Mo required; avoid excess Na and Cl.
• Apply lime/dolomite in acidic soils once every 2–3 years.
• Foliar sprays of micronutrients during new flushes improve growth.

• Young plants require regular irrigation, especially during dry spells.
• Mandarins: Water at 10–15 day intervals in winter, 5–7 days in summer.
• Avoid waterlogging; citrus is sensitive to excess moisture.
• Water should be free from salts.

• Weeds compete for nutrients and water, especially in young orchards.
• Pre-emergence herbicides: Diuron (5 kg/ha), Terbacil (4.5 kg/ha).
• Post-emergence: Atrazine (5–6 kg/ha), Glyphosate (5 L/ha).
• Intercropping with legumes (pea, cowpea, blackgram) is beneficial during pre-bearing years.

• 2,4-D (20 ppm) or NAA (30 ppm) sprayed at flowering and marble stage increases fruit retention.
• Improves fruit set and reduces premature fruit drop.

• Budded plants bear in 3–5 years; seedlings in 5–7 years.
• Yield: 15–20 t/ha/year; 1000–1500 fruits/tree/year at full bearing.
• Harvest when fruits are full-sized, colored, and have optimal sugar-acid blend.
• Use clippers or secateurs to avoid skin damage.

• Grade fruits by size and appearance; pack in wooden boxes or CFB cartons.
• Store at 8–10°C, 85–90% RH for best shelf life.
• HDPE/poly bags with ventilation extend storage life of Kinnow and Nagpur Santra.
• Waxing and neem leaf extract reduce post-harvest losses.

• Citrus requires careful varietal selection, proper soil, and climate management.
• Judicious nutrient and water management are essential for high yield and quality.
• Integrated weed, pest, and disease management improve orchard health.
• Proper post-harvest handling ensures better market returns.

• Banana is a major tropical fruit crop with significant economic importance.
• Production is limited by physiological disorders, pests, and diseases.
• Effective management is essential for sustainable yield and fruit quality.

• Observed in cv. Poovan, mainly in Tamil Nadu.
• Fruits are conical, ill-filled, with a prominent central core and non-viable seeds.
• Spray 2,4-D at 20 ppm when last hand opens to prevent disorder.

Hard Lump

• Occurs in cv. Rasthali; pulp is pinkish-brown, firm, and tastes unripe.
• Spray 2,4-D at 1000 ppm or dip peduncle cut end for 5 minutes to reduce lumps.

Sunscald

• Caused by direct sun exposure on bunches and peduncle.
• Cover bunches and peduncle with banana or flag leaves to prevent damage.

• Short, narrow leaves clustered at pseudostem apex (‘bunchy’ appearance).
• Leaf margins wavy and rolled upward in advanced stages.

Management:

• Remove affected plants with rhizome.
• Plant virus-free suckers.
• Control aphids with insecticides (e.g., 0.3% Rogor, 0.05% Monocrotophos).

Banana Bract Mosaic Virus
Pathogen: Banana bract mosaic virus, transmitted by Aphis gossypii and Pentalonia nigronervosa.
Symptoms:

• Discoloration and necrotic streaks on male bud bracts.
• Spindle-shaped discoloration on pseudostem.

Management:

• Early detection and removal of infected plants.
• Control vectors as for other viral diseases.

Banana Streak Virus
Pathogen: Banana streak virus, transmitted by citrus mealybug (Planococcus citri).
Symptoms:

• Foliar mosaic and necrotic streaks on leaves.

• Yellowing and withering of leaves; petiole breaks and hangs.
• Longitudinal splitting of pseudostem; plant death.

Management:

• Remove infected plants; apply lime (2 kg/pit) and fallow for 6 months.
• Grow resistant varieties (Dwarf Cavendish, Poovan, Nendran).
• Crop rotation with paddy in wetland areas.
• Apply carbendazim (50–60 mg) in corm at 45° angle.

Sigatoka Leaf Spot
Pathogen: Mycosphaerella musicola.
Symptoms:

• Yellowish-green streaks along veins, enlarging into elongated spots.
• Coalescence of spots leads to leaf drying.

Management:

• Spray copper oxychloride or carbendazim (500 g/ha).
• Avoid close planting to reduce humidity.

• Yellowing starts from inner leaves, spreads upward; wilting of all leaves.

Management:

• Ensure good drainage.
• Biological control with Pseudomonas fluorescens.
• Crop rotation with non-hosts (e.g., sorghum).

Tip Over (Heart Rot)
Pathogen: Erwinia carotovora.
Symptoms:

• Rotting of central tender leaf; pseudostem detaches easily from corm.
• Bacterial ooze from corm and pseudostem edges.

Management:

• Use disease-free suckers.
• Grow resistant varieties (e.g., Poovan).

• Adopt integrated pest and disease management (IPDM) for sustainable production.
• Use resistant varieties and healthy planting material.
• Practice crop rotation and proper field sanitation.
• Apply recommended fungicides and insecticides judiciously.
• Bunches mature 100–150 days after flowering.
• Average yields (t/ha/year): Poovan 40–50, Monthan 30–40, Robusta 50–60, Dwarf Cavendish 50–60.

• Banana (Musa spp.) is a major fruit crop and staple food in tropical regions.
• Origin: South East Asia; called ‘Apple of Paradise’.
• Main producing states: Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar.
• Edible bananas are mostly hybrids of M. acuminata and M. balbisiana.
• Fruits develop by parthenocarpy (without fertilization).

• Deep, well-drained soils rich in organic matter are ideal.
• Optimum soil pH: 5.5–8.0.
• Soil depth: At least 1 meter.

Climate:

• Prefers humid tropical climate.
• Temperature range: 10°C to 40°C (optimum ~23°C).
• Altitude: Up to 1500 m above mean sea level.
• Rainfall: Minimum 100 mm/month is beneficial.
• High wind velocity (>80 m/hr) can damage plants.

• Wet land: Feb–Apr (Poovan, Rasthali, Monthan), Apr–May (Nendran, Robusta).
• Garden land: Jan–Feb, Nov–Dec.
• Padugai land: Jan–Feb, Aug–Sep.
• Hill banana: Apr–May (lower Palani hills), Jun–Aug (Sirumalai).

Propagation Methods:

• By suckers: Sword suckers (vigorous, early bearing) and water suckers (less vigorous).
• Average sucker weight: 1.5–2 kg.
• Micropropagation (tissue culture) for rapid multiplication.

• Trim roots and decayed corm portions; cut pseudostem to 20 cm above corm.
• For wilt-prone varieties, dip corm in 0.1% carbendazim for 5 min.
• Pralinage: Dip corm in clay slurry and sprinkle with 40 g carbofuran 3G per sucker to control nematodes.
• Alternative: Dip in 0.75% monocrotophos, shade dry 24 hours before planting.

Field Preparation:

• Deep ploughing and leveling of land.
• Dig pits (45 cm x 45 cm x 45 cm); refill with topsoil, 10 kg FYM, 250 g neem cake, 50 g lindane 1.3%.

• Garden land: 1.8 x 1.8 m (3086 plants/ha) or 1.5 x 1.5 m (4444 plants/ha).
• Wet land: 2.1 x 2.1 m (2267 plants/ha).
• Hill: 3.6 x 3.6 m (750 plants/ha).
• High density: 3 suckers/pit at 1.8 x 3.6 m (4600 plants/ha).

• Immediate irrigation after planting; life irrigation on 4th day.
• Subsequent irrigation: Weekly (garden land), every 10–15 days (wetland).
• Drip irrigation: 15 L/plant/day (planting–4th month), 20 L/plant/day (5th month–shooting), 25 L/plant/day (shooting–15 days before harvest).

• Apply N, P, K as per land type and variety (see table below).
• Use neem-coated urea for N application.
• Apply N & K in 3 splits (3rd, 5th, 7th month); P at 3rd month.
• For tissue culture plants, apply 50% extra fertilizer at 2nd, 4th, 6th, 8th month.
• Biofertilizers: Azospirillum and Phosphobacteria (20 g each at planting and 5th month).

• Apply 25 L water/plant/day with 200:30:300 g N:P2O5:K2O/plant using water-soluble fertilizers.
• For cost-saving, use 30% recommended N & K via fertigation; full P as basal at 2nd month.

Micronutrients:

• Spray ZnSO4 (0.5%), FeSO4 (0.2%), CuSO4 (0.2%), H3BO3 (0.1%) at 3, 5, 7 months after planting.

• Bi-monthly digging and earthing-up.
• Desuckering: Remove side suckers monthly.
• Remove and burn dry/dead leaves.
• Remove male flower a week after last hand opens.
• Propping: Support bunches with bamboo or casuarina poles to prevent wind damage.

• Spray 2,4-D at 25 ppm after last hand opens to improve bunch grade and reduce seediness (Poovan).
• Spray CCC (1000 ppm) at 4th and 6th month to enhance yield.
• Spray plantozyme (2 ml/L) at 6th and 8th month for higher yield.
• Cover bunches with transparent polyethylene sleeves (2–4% ventilation) after last hand opens.

• Suitable intercrops: Leguminous vegetables, beetroot, elephant foot yam, sunhemp.
• Incorporate sunhemp at 45 days to reduce nematode build-up.
• Avoid cucurbitaceous vegetables as intercrops.