Category: PPT Agriculture

• Belongs to family Pyralidae, order Lepidoptera; serious pest of brinjal.
• Adult moth is medium-sized with whitish forewings marked by black and brown patches; caterpillar is small and light pink.
• Eggs (up to 250) are laid singly on leaves, shoots, flower buds, or fruits; larval period lasts 12–15 days in summer, 22 days in winter.
• Larvae bore into shoots and fruits, causing withering, drying, and fruit damage (up to 21% loss); infested fruits show circular holes plugged with excreta.
• Management includes removal of infested plant parts, use of larval parasitoids (Microbracon greeni), pheromone traps (5/ha), and insecticidal sprays (carbaryl, profenofos, cypermethrin).

• Member of family Coccinellidae, order Coleoptera; also known as spotted leaf beetle or hadda beetle.
• Adults are small, round to oblong, brick red or pinkish with 12–28 black dots; grubs are yellowish, spiny, and broad at the front.
• Eggs laid on leaf undersides; larval period 10–35 days, pupal period 3–6 days; total life cycle 17–50 days.
• Both grubs and adults feed on leaf chlorophyll, creating skeletonized patches and reducing photosynthetic area.
• Control by hand-picking, destruction of egg masses, use of parasitoids (Tetrastichus ovularum, Uga menoni), and foliar insecticides (DDVP, carbaryl, profenofos, quinalphos).

• Family Cicadellidae, order Hemiptera; small, light brown adults.
• Feeds on plant sap, causing leaf size reduction, shortened petioles, bushy growth, and stunted plants.
• Can induce ‘little leaf’ disease, leading to conversion of floral parts into leafy structures and rare fruiting.
• Management includes removal and destruction of infected plants, seedling dip in carbofuran, and spraying with dimethoate.

• Family Aleurodidae, order Hemiptera; adults have yellowish bodies, red eyes, and white or greenish wings.
• Common and serious pest of brinjal and other solanaceous crops; nymphs are pale yellow and sluggish.
• Life cycle completed in 13–122 days; up to 10–12 generations per year.
• Nymphs and adults suck sap, causing leaf withering, browning, and flower shedding; excrete honeydew leading to sooty mould and reduced photosynthesis.
• Control via insecticidal sprays (dimethoate, malathion, methyl demeton, monocrotophos).

• Family Aphididae, order Hemiptera; nymphs and adults are small, soft-bodied insects.
• Suck sap from leaves, causing yellowing, deformation, and drying of plants.
• Honeydew secretion promotes sooty mould growth, further reducing photosynthetic efficiency.
• Management includes seed treatment with imidacloprid or thiamethoxam, and use of yellow sticky traps.

• Family Tingidae, order Hemiptera; nymphs and adults feed on leaf sap.
• Infestation leads to yellowing, withering, and leaves covered with exuviae and excreta, especially in summer crops.
• Control by spraying with DDVP or dusting with carbaryl.

• Family Pyralidae, order Lepidoptera; caterpillars fold leaves from tip upwards and feed within the fold.
• Infested leaves wither and dry; larvae are always found inside the leaf fold.
• Management includes removal and destruction of infested leaves, and application of carbaryl dust or spray.

• Family Tetranychidae, order Acarina; tiny pests that suck cell sap from leaves.
• Infestation causes yellowing and withering of leaves, reducing plant vigor.
• Control measures include spraying with sulphur, dicofol, or abamectin, and dusting with sulphur.

• Potato is susceptible to various fungal and viral diseases.
• Major diseases include early blight, late blight, black scurf, leaf roll, and mosaic viruses.
• Effective management requires understanding pathogen biology and disease cycles.

• Small, dark lesions with concentric rings (bull’s eye) on older leaves.
• Yellowing tissue around spots; severe cases cause foliage death.
• Stem lesions may girdle plants near soil line.

Etiology:

• Septate, branched, light brown mycelium; conidia borne in chains, obclavate, muriform.

Disease Cycle:

• Primary infection from mycelium/conidia in plant debris.
• Secondary spread by wind, water, or rain splash.

Management:

• Use disease-free seed and crop rotation.
• Remove and destroy infected debris.
• Fungicide sprays: Mancozeb 0.25%, Chlorothalonil 0.2%, or Zineb 0.25% at intervals.

• Water-soaked, dark lesions on lower leaves, expanding rapidly in cool, moist weather.
• Lesions not limited by veins; entire leaves may die quickly.
• Tubers show irregular, sunken, brown to purplish areas with granular rot beneath skin.

Etiology:

• Coenocytic, hyaline, branched mycelium; sporangia are oval/pear-shaped, germinate by zoospores.

Disease Cycle:

• Primary infection from infected tubers and soil.
• Airborne sporangia cause secondary spread.

Management:

• Protective fungicide sprays (Mancozeb/Zineb 0.2%).
• Use resistant varieties (e.g., Kufri Naveen, Kufri Jeevan).
• Destroy foliage before harvest; avoid tuber injury during harvest.

• Necrosis at sprout tips, sunken lesions on stolons, roots, stems.
• Black sclerotia (scurf) on tuber surface.
• Stunted plants, purplish leaves, deformed tubers.

Etiology:

• Basidiomycete fungus; produces sclerotia, rarely basidiospores.
• Mycelium is septate, branched; sclerotia are dark brown to black, irregular.

Disease Cycle:

• Primary infection from sclerotia in soil.
• Seedlings from infected soil spread disease.

Management:

• Plant only disease-free seed tubers.
• Seed treatment with fungicides (e.g., mercuric chloride; safer alternatives preferred).
• Crop rotation and shallow planting reduce severity.

• Upward rolling of young leaves; leaves become dry, thick, and brittle.
• Plants are stunted, erect, light green; tubers reduced in size and number.
• Net necrosis may develop inside tubers.

Transmission:

• Spread by aphids (Myzus persicae, Aphis gossypii) and infected tubers.

Management:

• Use disease-free, certified seed tubers.
• Rogue and bury diseased plants.
• Control aphids with insecticides (e.g., Phorate 10G, 10 kg/ha).

• Light yellow mottling, slight crinkling, interveinal necrosis, mild stunting.

Severe Mosaic (Potato virus Y – PVY):
Symptoms:

• Chlorotic and necrotic streaks, leaf drop, interveinal and stem necrosis, stunting, leaf rugosity.

Rugose/Common Mosaic (PVX & PVY):
Symptoms:

• Black streaks on veins/stems, shriveled and mottled leaves, dwarfing, reduced tuber size.

Transmission:

• PVX: Mechanical (sap), seed, tools, contact.
• PVY: Aphids (Myzus persicae, Aphis gossypii), infected tubers.

Management:

• Use disease-free, certified seed tubers.
• Grow resistant varieties (e.g., Chippewa, Irish Cobbler).
• Rogue diseased plants; control aphids (Phorate 10G, 10 kg/ha).
• Early harvesting and hygiene reduce spread.

• Use certified, disease-free seed tubers for all plantings.
• Practice crop rotation and field sanitation to reduce inoculum.
• Apply recommended fungicides and insecticides judiciously.
• Grow resistant varieties where available.
• Monitor fields regularly for early detection and management.

• Maturity indices are signs or measurements indicating readiness for harvest.
• Correct harvest stage ensures optimal quality, shelf life, and market value.
• Improper timing leads to poor flavor, texture, and increased post-harvest losses.
• India loses 25–30% of produce due to improper harvest timing.

• Maturity: Stage when fruit/vegetable is fully developed and can ripen normally.
• Ripening: Qualitative changes after maturity making produce edible.
• Harvesting at correct maturity is crucial for quality and storage.

• Physiological maturity: End of development; ability to ripen after harvest (mainly for fruits).
• Horticultural (Commercial) maturity: Stage preferred by consumers; depends on intended use.
• Climacteric fruits: Harvest at mature but unripe stage.
• Non-climacteric fruits: Harvest at ripe stage.

• Ensure sensory and nutritional quality.
• Provide adequate shelf life and facilitate marketing.
• Help standardize harvest timing and improve productivity.
• Balance between shelf life and eating quality.

1. Subjective (Qualitative): Color, size, shape, firmness, aroma, sound.
2. Objective (Quantitative): TSS, acidity, starch content, oil content, firmness, dry matter, days after bloom, heat units, respiration, ethylene production.

• Size and shape: Final size/shape indicates maturity (e.g., mango cheeks, banana angularity).
• Color: Loss of green or development of characteristic color.
• Firmness: Softening indicates maturity (measured by penetrometer).
• Specific gravity: Increases with maturity; used for grading.

• Total Soluble Solids (TSS): Measured by refractometer; indicates sugar content.
• Titratable acidity (TA): Determined by titration; used with TSS for sugar-acid ratio.
• Calendar date/days after full bloom: Useful where climate is stable.
• Heat units: Degree-days required for maturity.

• Respiration rate: Climacteric rise indicates harvest time in some fruits.
• Ethylene evolution: Peaks at maturity in climacteric fruits.
• Volatile production: Specific aroma compounds signal maturity (e.g., apple, banana).

• Simple, easy, and inexpensive to use.
• Objective and related to quality and storage life.
• Show progressive change with maturity.
• Allow prediction from year to year.

• Affected by soil, nutrition, irrigation, climate, and variety.
• Position on plant and cultural practices influence indices.
• Visual indices may mislead due to environmental variation.

• Peel color change on shoulders.
• Tapka method: natural fruit drop.
• Specific gravity: 1.01–1.02.
• Days from fruit set to maturity.

Banana

• Disappearance of angularity; round fingers.
• Pulp:peel ratio 1.2–1.6; pH 5.2–5.6.
• Harvest at 75–80% maturity for distant markets.

Guava

• Color change from dark to light green.
• Specific gravity ~1.0.
• 17–20 weeks from fruit set to maturity.

• TSS: 16–24% (variety-dependent).
• Peel color, pulp texture, flavor, easy berry separation.

Papaya

• Skin color change at apex or yellow streaks.
• Latex becomes watery.

Pineapple

• 25% surface yellow for local market.
• Flattened eyes, TSS:acid ratio 21–27.

Jackfruit

• Dull, hollow sound when tapped.
• Spines widely spaced, aromatic odor.

• Rind color change (species-specific).
• TSS:acid ratio (e.g., sweet orange 8.5–8.9).
• Minimum juice content standards.

Pomegranate

• 135–170 days after anthesis.
• Peel color change, hard rind, metallic sound.

Sapota

• Dull orange/potato color, minimal latex.
• Disappearance of brown scaly surface.

• TSS, color change, firmness, ease of separation.
• Iodine test for starch breakdown.

Strawberry

• 2/3 to 3/4 red color for local markets.

Peach/Plum

• Days from full bloom, size, firmness, color, sugar:acid ratio.

Ber, Date Palm, Litchi, Fig, Custard Apple, Aonla

• Color change, TSS, acid ratio, specific gravity, days after pollination, sound, texture, and aroma as indices.

• Physiological maturity: Maximum growth and development.
• Commercial maturity: Stage required by market; varies by crop and edible part.
• Harvest timing affects marketability, storage, and quality.

• Curds 4–8 in. diameter, compact, white, smooth.

Cabbage

• Heads hard and solid, uniform color.

Broccoli

• Dark green, compact head, before yellow flowers appear.

Brussels Sprouts

• Sprouts 1–1.5 in. diameter, firm.

• Harvested from mature green to fully red, depending on market.

Eggplant

• Glossy, purplish-black or white color, 6–8 in. diameter.

Beans

• Pods filled with seeds, green, not yellowing.

Okra

• Pods 3–5 in. long, tender.

• Bulbs 2–4 in. diameter, tops fall over and dry.

Peas

• Pods fully developed, seeds not more than half full size.

Pepper

• Firm, crisp, full-sized; color depends on cultivar.

Potato

• Harvest when plants yellow and die down; avoid sun exposure.

• Full size, firm, glossy rind, ground spot cream to orange.

Cucumber

• Bright deep green, 2–3 in. long, before yellowing.

Watermelon

• Dull sound when thumped, yellow ground spot, brown tendrils.

Muskmelon

• Stem slips easily, netting rounded, flesh color change.

• Roots 1 in. diameter, dark tops.

Turnip

• Roots 2–3 in. diameter, tops 3–5 in. long.

Radish

• Roots 1 in. diameter, shoulders visible, avoid over-maturity.

Spinach

• Leaves 4–6 in. long, harvested at base.

• Maturity indices are essential for optimal harvest timing and quality.
• Indices vary by crop, variety, and intended use.
• Combination of visual, physical, chemical, and physiological indices is best.
• Proper harvest reduces losses and improves marketability.

• Maturity is the stage when fruits or vegetables are fully developed and can ripen normally after harvest.
• Proper harvest timing is crucial for maintaining postharvest quality.
• Maturity indices are signs or measurements indicating readiness for harvest.
• Harvesting at correct maturity improves shelf life, flavor, and market value.

• Maturation is the process leading to full tissue development in fruits and vegetables.
• Ripening occurs after maturity and involves flavor and color development.
• After maturity, the fruit relies on its own reserves as the supply from the plant stops.
• The stage of maturity at harvest affects storage life and quality.

• Premature harvesting leads to poor quality, low sugar, high acidity, and poor flavor.
• Immature fruits may not ripen properly and have short shelf life.
• Overmature fruits are prone to spoilage and have reduced storage life.
• Proper harvest stage is essential for optimal yield and marketability.

• Produce should reach peak acceptable quality for consumers at the time of sale.
• Fruits and vegetables must have acceptable flavor, appearance, size, and shape.
• Harvested produce should be safe and non-toxic.
• Harvest maturity should ensure adequate shelf life and handling properties.

• Physiological maturity: Stage when fruit can ripen normally after harvest; applies mainly to fruits and fruit vegetables.
• Climacteric fruits: Harvest at mature but unripe stage for storage and transport.
• Non-climacteric fruits: Harvest at ripe stage for best quality.
• Horticultural (commercial) maturity: Stage when produce meets consumer and market preferences; varies by intended use and variety.

• Physiologically immature: Not ready for harvest, poor quality.
• Firm and mature: Optimal for harvest, good quality and handling.
• Harvest ripe: Fully ripe, best for immediate consumption but limited shelf life.

• Maintains product quality and freshness.
• Improves storage life and handling.
• Facilitates ripening and senescence management.
• Maximizes returns and enables long-distance transport.
• Helps manage pest and disease risks.

• Maturity indices are signs or measurements indicating readiness for harvest.
• Ensure sensory quality (flavor, color, aroma, texture, nutrition).
• Enable adequate postharvest life and market scheduling.
• Facilitate efficient harvest and packing operations.

• Subjective indices: Qualitative; based on senses (color, size, shape, firmness, sound, juice content).
• Objective indices: Quantitative; measurable (TSS, acidity, starch, oil content, firmness, dry matter, days after bloom, heat units, respiration, ethylene).

• Size, shape, and surface character indicate maturity (e.g., banana fingers become rounded, mango shoulders fill out).
• Surface gloss changes (melons, grapes) and drying of leaves or bracts (root crops) are indicators.
• Skin color changes from green to yellow/red/purple as fruits mature.
• Color charts and colorimeters provide objective color measurement.

• Firmness/solidity assessed by hand pressure (lettuce, cabbage) or penetrometer (e.g., mango: 1.75–2 kg/cm²).
• Tenderometer measures pea maturity based on texture.
• Finger squeeze/touch used for peas, beans, okra (experience-based).
• Specific gravity increases with maturity; used for grading (e.g., Dasheri mango: 1.02).
• Juice content increases as fruit matures; measured by extracting and quantifying juice volume.
• Acoustic/sound tests (e.g., watermelon, jackfruit) detect maturity by tapping.
• Other methods: exudation of latex (papaya), electrical properties, NMR, X-rays (lettuce).

• Total soluble solids (TSS) measured with a refractometer; indicates sugar content.
• Titratable acidity (TA) determined by titration; acidity decreases with maturity.
• Brix:acid ratio is a key indicator of flavor and maturity.
• Oil content used for avocados; minimum 8% oil (excluding skin and seed) for harvest.
• Starch content measured for crops like apples and bananas; decreases as fruit ripens.

• Calendar date: Based on typical harvest periods for varieties and locations.
• Days from full bloom (DFFB): Reliable but varies with season and location (e.g., mango: 110–125 days).
• Growing degree days (GDD): Cumulative heat units predict maturity; base temperature varies by crop.
• GDD formula: (Daily mean temp – Base temp) × Number of days (flowering to harvest).

• Respiration rate: Climacteric fruits show a rise at maturity (e.g., apple, pear).
• Internal ethylene evolution: Peaks at maturity in climacteric fruits.
• Volatile production: Specific aroma compounds indicate maturity (e.g., apple: ethyl-2-methyl butyrate).

• Combining subjective and objective indices ensures accurate harvest timing.
• Selection of indices depends on crop, intended use, and market requirements.
• Proper maturity assessment maximizes quality, shelf life, and market value.

• Harvesting: Gathering mature crops from the field.
• Post-harvest handling: Operations after harvest to maintain quality and reduce losses.
• Proper techniques are essential for quality, shelf-life, and profitability.

• Maturity: Stage when a crop is ready for harvest.
• Maturity indices: Observable signs indicating readiness for harvest.
• Indices include color, size, shape, texture, weight, and composition.

• Physiological maturity: Crop has completed development; ripening begins.
• Commercial maturity: Harvest stage based on market or processing needs.
• Harvest timing may differ based on intended use.

1. Visual method: Color, size, shape, abscission zones.
2. Feel method: Firmness, crispness, texture by touch.
3. Chemical analysis: Sugar, acid, starch content.
4. Physical means: Pressure tester, specific gravity.
5. Computation method: Days from planting or flowering to harvest.

• Inspect fields for crop readiness and remove obstructions.
• Prepare harvesting tools and materials.
• Construct temporary sheds for harvested produce.
• Avoid exposing harvested crops to sunlight.

• Use appropriate tools: scissors, pruning shears, knives.
• Proper tools reduce damage and maintain quality.

• Harvest at optimal time of day (e.g., morning or late afternoon).
• Harvest at proper maturity for intended use.
• Avoid sun exposure to prevent wilting and sunscald.
• Handle produce gently to prevent mechanical injury.
• Avoid deep piling to prevent crushing and heat buildup.

• Trimming and cleaning: Remove damaged or diseased parts.
• Sorting and grading: Classify by size, shape, color, and quality.
• Drying and curing: For tubers and bulbs to heal wounds.
• Proper storage: Maintain suitable temperature and humidity.

• Mechanical injuries: Cuts, abrasions, bruises during harvest/handling.
• Physiological losses: Yellowing, wilting, sprouting, toughening.
• Both types reduce quality and market value.

• Cleaning removes soil, dirt, and residues.
• Wiping with a soft cloth is preferred for some vegetables.
• Trimming removes undesirable, damaged, or diseased parts.
• Improves appearance and reduces transport costs.

• Sorting: Grouping by industry or consumer standards.
• Grading: Classifying by color, size, shape, maturity, defects.
• Grades: Fancy, No. 1, 2, 3, 4, or off-grade.
• Honest grading enhances market value and reputation.

• Packing: Placing produce in suitable containers for transport/storage.
• Use crates (wooden/plastic) with liners to prevent injury.
• Do not mix different grades in one container.
• Proper packing reduces losses and maintains quality.

• Curing: Exposing tubers/roots to warm, humid conditions to heal wounds.
• Recommended for potatoes, sweet potatoes, onions (15–19°C, high RH).
• Storage: Delays sale/distribution; controls supply and stabilizes price.
• Not all vegetables are suitable for long-term storage.

• Transport from farm to market must minimize damage.
• Avoid throwing, trampling, or overloading containers.
• Proper loading preserves quality and reduces losses.

• Technological: Decay, yellowing, wilting, rotting, sprouting.
• Mechanical: Cuts, punctures, cracks, abrasions from poor handling.
• Non-technological: Lack of storage, transport, adverse weather, market demand.
• Microbial decay often follows mechanical or physiological damage.

• Marketing: Transfer of goods from producer to consumer.
• Types: Local market, nearby town market, wider regional/national markets.
• Freshness is crucial for leafy and perishable vegetables.

1. Retailing directly to consumers: Farmer sells in local markets.
2. Selling to middlemen/wholesalers: Middlemen harvest and market crops.
3. Selling at the farm: Direct negotiation with buyers.
4. Selling through contracting companies: Pre-agreed contracts specify terms.
5. Selling through cooperatives: Collective marketing for better returns.

• Farm records: Written statements of facts and figures for management.
• Farm accounts: Financial statements tracking income and expenses.
• Essential for monitoring financial status and decision-making.

• Fixed costs: Incurred regardless of production (e.g., land tax, equipment depreciation).
• Variable costs: Change with production (e.g., seeds, fertilizers, labor).
• Cash costs: Actual money spent (e.g., hired labor, inputs).
• Non-cash costs: Family labor, own capital interest.

• Gross income = Quantity produced × Price per unit.
• Total cost = Fixed costs + Variable costs.
• Net income = Gross income – Total cost.

• Harvest at correct maturity using appropriate indices.
• Handle produce gently to avoid mechanical damage.
• Sort, grade, and pack properly for market requirements.
• Use suitable storage and transport methods to minimize losses.
• Maintain accurate records for better farm management.

• Fresh vegetables are highly perishable due to active senescence processes.
• Post-harvest management includes all activities from harvest to consumption.
• Main goal: minimize losses and maintain quality and nutritional value.
• Key activities: harvesting, handling, storage, processing, packaging, transport, and marketing.

• Understand techniques to reduce post-harvest losses in vegetables.
• Identify causes and control measures for post-harvest losses.
• Recognize marketing channels and associated losses.
• Learn various post-harvest management techniques.

• Maintains quality and extends shelf life of vegetables.
• Reduces food losses, poverty, and food insecurity.
• Improves market share and competitiveness for smallholders.
• Enhances human nutrition and health.
• Reducing losses is often easier than increasing yield.

• Improper harvesting (immature, over-mature produce).
• Faulty post-harvest practices and poor handling.
• Inadequate sorting, grading, and storage conditions.
• Improper packaging and delayed transport.
• Biological (pests, diseases), chemical, mechanical, physical, and physiological factors.

• Biological: Pests, diseases, microbial spoilage.
• Chemical: Contamination, off-flavors from pathogens or chemicals.
• Mechanical: Injuries, bruises, cuts during handling.
• Physical: Water loss, temperature extremes.
• Physiological: Sprouting, rooting, senescence, respiration changes.

• Farmers → Wholesalers → Retailers → Consumers
• Farmers → Cooperatives → Retailers/Consumers
• Farmers → Pre-harvest Contractors → Wholesalers → Retailers → Consumers
• Farmers → Local Collectors → Wholesalers → Retailers → Consumers
• Direct marketing: Farmers → Consumers

• Farm: Harvesting and field handling.
• Pack-house: Cleaning, sorting, sanitizing, packaging, cooling, storage.
• Transport: Loading, unloading, stacking, protection.
• Market: Re-sorting, re-packing, storage.
• Processing: Drying, sauce production, fermentation.

1. Harvesting
2. Reception
3. Pre-cooling
4. Selection, Cleaning & Disinfection
5. Drying
6. Grading
7. Other Treatments
8. Packing & Packaging
9. Storage
10. Transport

• Quality cannot be improved after harvest; harvest at optimum maturity.
• Harvesting time depends on intended use and market requirements.
• Harvest during cooler parts of the day to reduce heat load.
• Avoid harvesting during rain; if unavoidable, wash and dry before packaging.

• Days from fruit set
• Visual indicators (color, shape, external appearance)
• Texture and firmness
• Specific gravity, starch content, soluble solids
• Sugar-acid ratio, oil content, odor

• Technique for reducing water loss in hardy vegetables (e.g., onion, garlic, sweet potato).
• Involves drying under shade to heal wounds and toughen outer layers.
• Prevents decay and moisture loss during storage.

• Removes dust, dirt, and pathogens from produce surface.
• Methods: dry dusting, wet washing with clean water and mild detergent (0.1%).
• Washing duration: 3–5 minutes at room temperature (~27°C).

• Sorting: Removal of diseased, damaged, or deformed produce.
• Grading: Categorization by size, weight, color, maturity, and quality.
• Improves market value and reduces spread of infection.

• Protects produce from physical damage and contamination.
• Should be cost-effective, easy to handle, and suitable for transport.
• Reduces losses during marketing and storage.
• Materials: cartons, crates, baskets, plastic containers, etc.

• Different vegetables require specific storage conditions.
• Starchy vegetables: store at 15.5–21.1°C in dry locations.
• Most others: store at refrigerator temperatures (0–5°C).
• Keep away from ethylene-producing fruits to prevent premature ripening.

• Temperature is critical for extending shelf life and reducing spoilage.
• Improper temperature causes chilling or heat injuries.
• Optimal temperature inhibits pathogen growth and delays senescence.

• Vegetables have varying respiration rates affecting shelf life.
• High respiration rate: shorter shelf life (e.g., asparagus, mushrooms).
• Low respiration rate: longer shelf life (e.g., onions, potatoes).

• Transport is a major factor in post-harvest losses.
• Produce should be transported quickly and efficiently.
• Proper packaging and loading are essential to minimize damage.
• Use refrigerated vehicles for long distances when possible.

• Refrigerated and non-refrigerated vehicles for highways.
• Containers for air, rail, and sea transport.
• Pallets for bulk handling.
• Manual transport: carts, wheelbarrows, animal-drawn vehicles for short distances.

• Post-harvest losses in vegetables can reach 20–50% between harvest and retail.
• Losses increase with more intermediaries in the marketing chain.
• Proper post-harvest technologies and timely operations minimize losses.
• Focus on harvesting at optimum maturity, cleaning, sorting, grading, packaging, storage, and transport.

• Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) is a major solanaceous vegetable crop.
• Native to the Peruvian-Mexican region; introduced to India by Portuguese travelers.
• Valued for its nutritional content, including vitamins C, A, and B.
• Widely cultivated for fresh consumption and processing industries.

• Scientific name: Solanum lycopersicum
• Family: Solanaceae
• Chromosome number: 2n=24
• Annual, terrestrial plant with compound, alternately arranged leaves.
• Inflorescence is a cyme; flowers are yellow, perfect, and hypogynous.
• Fruit is a fleshy berry with 2–9 locules, usually red, orange, or yellow when ripe.

• Consumed as a vegetable and in processed forms (soup, ketchup, sauce, paste, juice).
• Rich in minerals: potassium, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, boron.
• Medicinal uses: promotes gastric secretion, acts as blood purifier, intestinal antiseptic.
• Tomato seed oil is used in salad dressings and margarine production.

• IARI, New Delhi: Pusa Early Dwarf, Pusa Ruby, Pusa Red Plum
• IIHR, Bangalore: Arka Saurabh, Arka Vikas, Arka Alok, Arka Vishal
• PAU, Ludhiana: Punjab Tropic, S-12, Punjab NR-7
• Private sector: Mangala, Sheetal, Vaishali, Rupali, Rashmi, Naveen

• Inflorescence: Cymes, flowers borne in clusters.
• Anthesis: Begins at 6 a.m., peaks 7–8 a.m.; anther dehiscence peaks 9–11 a.m.
• Stigma receptive 16 hours before anthesis, remains receptive 2–3 days after.
• Optimum pollination temperature: ~21°C; pollen viability: 7–10 days at 20°C, 70% RH.

• Warm-season crop; optimal temperature: 20–28°C.
• Cannot tolerate frost; temperatures below 15°C or above 39°C affect fruit set.
• Prefers well-drained, fertile, organic-rich soils with pH 6–7.
• Moderately tolerant to acidic soils (pH as low as 5.5); lime recommended for low pH.

• Propagated by seeds; nursery beds should be porous and fertile.
• Seeds sown in lines 5 cm apart, covered with sand, and watered gently.
• Dry grass cover for 3–5 days promotes early germination.
• Seedlings ready for transplanting at 25–30 days, 10–15 cm tall.

• Seed rate: 500–800 g/ha; ~300 seeds per gram.
• Seed treatment with IAA in talc powder enhances germination and vigor.
• Seeds may be treated with fungicides (e.g., captan or thiram) before sowing.

• Tomato is a heavy feeder of N, P, and K.
• Irrigated: 250:250:250 kg NPK/ha; Rainfed: 60:50:30 kg NPK/ha.
• Apply 35 t/ha FYM before planting.
• Micronutrients (Ca, B, Zn) applied via foliar sprays.

• Organic manures incorporated before final ploughing.
• N applied in 2–3 splits: after transplanting, at flowering, and at fruiting.
• Full P and K applied at planting, mixed into soil near rows.

• Seedlings transplanted at 3–4 weeks, 10–15 cm tall.
• Spacing: 60 × 30 cm; ridges preferred in heavy soils.
• Transplant in the evening; irrigate immediately after planting.

• First irrigation after transplanting, second on day 3, then at 7-day intervals.
• Weekly irrigation in hot season; irrigate during frost risk in winter.
• First weeding at 25 days, earthing up at 45 days after planting.
• Pre-plant herbicide application can aid weed control.

• Fruit borer, jassids, tobacco caterpillar, whitefly, root-knot nematodes.
• Control: Hand picking, crop rotation, insecticides, resistant varieties.

Major Diseases:

• Damping off, buckeye rot, Fusarium wilt, early blight, late blight, bacterial canker, leaf curl virus.

Physiological Disorders:

• Blossom end rot, cat face, fruit cracking.

• Plants supported with stakes to prevent lodging and fruit-soil contact.
• Roguing removes off-types and diseased plants at pre-flowering, flowering, and fruiting stages.
• Ensures genetic purity and seed quality.

• Fruits harvested at pink to red ripe stage for seed extraction.
• Hybrid seed yield: 40–50 kg/ha under optimal conditions.

• Crushed ripe fruits fermented until pulp separates from seeds.
• Seeds washed and sun-dried.

Alkali Treatment:

• Pulp treated with alkali, left overnight; seeds settle and are washed.

Acid Treatment:

• Pulp mixed with 5–6 ml/kg HCl, stirred, washed after 30 min, seeds dried.

• Seeds washed thoroughly to remove pulp and mucilage.
• Dried rapidly to 8% moisture on trays or cloth in sun.
• Graded using sieves (0.6–0.8 mm); larger seeds preferred for quality.

• Seeds treated with captan or thiram (2 g/kg seed) before storage.
• Packed in moisture-proof containers at 8–10% moisture content.
• Viability maintained for 25–30 months under proper storage.

• Requires separate male and female parent lines (ratio 1:5).
• Emasculation of female flowers at late bud stage; anthers removed.
• Pollen from male parent applied to stigma of emasculated flowers.
• Bagging prevents unwanted cross-pollination; tagged for identification.

Seed Standards:

• Tomato is affected by several insect pests causing significant yield loss.
• Pests attack various plant parts: leaves, stems, flowers, and fruits.
• Effective management requires correct identification and integrated approaches.

• Caterpillar: Varying color, radiating hairs, brown to greenish with dark lines.
• Moth: Medium-sized, light yellowish-brown, forewings with dark spot, hindwings pale with black border.

• Eggs laid on tender plant parts.
• Larval stage: 18–25 days; pupates in soil.
• Complete life cycle: ~30–40 days.

Nature of Damage:

• Young larvae feed on foliage; older larvae bore into fruits.
• Bores circular holes, feeds inside fruit, causing rot by secondary infection.
• One larva can damage 2–8 fruits.

• Collect and destroy infested fruits and larvae.
• Deep ploughing after harvest to expose pupae.
• Intercrop with marigold (1:16 rows) to attract egg-laying adults.
• Grow resistant varieties (e.g., Rupali, Roma, Pusa Red Plume).

Biological Control:

• Release Trichogramma pretiosum or T. chilonis (egg parasitoids).
• Release Chrysoperla carnea larvae (predator).
• Spray Bacillus thuringiensis or Helicoverpa NPV.

Chemical Control:

• Use pheromone traps (Helilure) at 12/ha.
• Recommended insecticides: Azadirachtin, Indoxacarb, Flubendiamide, Novaluron, Phosalone, Quinalphos (as per label rates).

• Larva: Minute, orange-yellow, apodous maggots.
• Adult: Small, pale yellow fly.

Life Cycle:

• Eggs laid singly on upper leaf surface.
• Larval period: 7–10 days; pupation in soil or leaves.
• Total life cycle: ~3 weeks.

Nature of Damage:

• Larvae mine between leaf epidermis, creating serpentine trails.
• Severe infestation causes leaf drying and drop.

Management:

• Remove and destroy mined leaves.
• Spray neem seed kernel extract (NSKE) 5%.

• Larvae mine leaves, stems, and fruits.
• Causes leaf necrosis, fruit damage, and yield loss.

Management:

• Use pheromone traps for monitoring and mass trapping.
• Remove and destroy infested plant parts.
• Apply biological agents (Trichogramma, Bacillus thuringiensis).
• Use recommended insecticides judiciously.

• Eggs: Pear-shaped, light yellow.
• Nymphs: Oval, scale-like, greenish-white.
• Adults: Tiny, white, scale-like.

Nature of Damage:

• Nymphs and adults suck sap, causing chlorosis and leaf curling.
• Vector of tomato leaf curl virus.

Management:

• Uproot and destroy infected plants.
• Remove alternate weed hosts (e.g., Abutilon indicum).
• Use yellow sticky traps (12/ha).
• Apply carbofuran or recommended insecticides (dimethoate, malathion, thiamethoxam).

• Nymphs and adults suck sap, causing yellowing, deformation, and drying.
• Honeydew secretion leads to sooty mould, reducing photosynthesis.

Management:

• Seed treatment with imidacloprid or thiamethoxam.
• Use yellow sticky traps.
• Spray recommended insecticides if needed.

• Nymphs: Yellowish.
• Adults: Dark, fringed wings.

Nature of Damage:

• Silvery streaks on leaves, bud necrosis, flower drop.
• Vector of tomato spotted wilt virus.

Management:

• Uproot and destroy diseased plants.
• Use yellow sticky traps (15/ha).
• Release Chrysoperla carnea larvae (10,000/ha).
• Spray methyl demeton or dimethoate as per recommendations.

• Eggs: Hyaline, globular, laid in masses.
• Nymphs: Yellowish.
• Adults: Small, red.

Nature of Damage:

• Leaves turn reddish-brown, bronzed, and dry.
• Webbing on leaves; severe infestation affects flowering and fruiting.

Management:

• Spray wettable sulphur (50 WP, 2g/lit).
• Spray dicofol (18.5 EC, 2.5 ml/lit).

• Correct pest identification is essential for effective management.
• Combine cultural, biological, and chemical methods for sustainable control.
• Monitor pest populations using traps and field scouting.
• Use resistant varieties and maintain field hygiene.
• Apply insecticides judiciously to avoid resistance and protect beneficial organisms.

• Tomato is affected by several major insect pests causing significant yield loss.
• Pests attack various plant parts: leaves, stems, flowers, and fruits.
• Effective management requires knowledge of pest biology and damage symptoms.
• Integrated pest management (IPM) combines cultural, biological, and chemical methods.

• Caterpillars: Varying color, radiating hairs, brown to greenish with dark lines.
• Moth: Medium-sized, light yellowish brown, forewings with dark spot, hindwings pale with black border.

• Eggs laid on tender plant parts.
• Larval period: 18–25 days; pupates in soil.
• Complete life cycle: ~30–40 days.

Nature of Damage:

• Young larvae feed on foliage; older larvae bore into fruits.
• Bores circular holes, feeds on fruit contents.
• Damaged fruits often invaded by secondary pathogens.
• One larva can damage 2–8 fruits.

• Collect and destroy infested fruits and larvae.
• Deep ploughing after harvest to expose pupae.
• Intercrop with marigold (1:16 rows) to attract egg-laying adults.

Biological Control:

• Release Trichogramma pretiosum or T. chilonis (egg parasitoids).
• Release Chrysoperla carnea (predator) at 30 days after planting.
• Spray Bacillus thuringiensis or Helicoverpa NPV.

Chemical Control:

• Use pheromone traps (Helilure) at 12/ha.
• Spray recommended insecticides: Azadirachtin, Indoxacarb, Flubendiamide, Novaluron, Phosalone, Quinalphos (as per label rates).
• Grow resistant varieties: Rupali, Roma, Pusa Red Plume.

• Larva: Minute, orange-yellow, apodous maggots.
• Adult: Small, pale yellow flies.

Life Cycle:

• Eggs laid singly on leaf surface.
• Larval period: 7–10 days; pupates in soil or leaves.
• Total life cycle: ~3 weeks.

• Larvae mine between leaf epidermal layers, creating serpentine tunnels.
• Severe infestation causes leaf drying and drop.

Management:

• Collect and destroy mined leaves.
• Spray neem seed kernel extract (NSKE) 5%.
• Use yellow sticky traps for monitoring.

• Eggs: Pear-shaped, light yellow.
• Nymphs: Oval, scale-like, greenish-white.
• Adults: Tiny, white, scale-like.

• Nymphs and adults suck sap, causing chlorosis and leaf curling.
• Vector of tomato leaf curl virus.

Management:

• Uproot and destroy infected plants.
• Remove alternate weed hosts (e.g., Abutilon indicum).
• Use yellow sticky traps (12/ha).
• Apply carbofuran 3G or recommended insecticides: Dimethoate, Malathion, Oxydemeton-methyl, Thiamethoxam.

• Nymphs and adults suck sap from leaves and shoots.
• Plants turn yellow, become deformed, and may dry up.
• Honeydew secretion leads to sooty mould, reducing photosynthesis.

• Seed treatment with imidacloprid or thiamethoxam.
• Use yellow sticky traps for monitoring and control.
• Spray recommended systemic insecticides if needed.

• Nymphs: Yellowish.
• Adults: Dark, slender, fringed wings.

Nature of Damage:

• Silvery streaks on leaves, bud necrosis, premature flower drop.
• Vector of tomato spotted wilt virus.

• Uproot and destroy diseased plants.
• Use yellow sticky traps (15/ha).
• Release Chrysoperla carnea larvae (10,000/ha).
• Spray methyl demeton or dimethoate as per recommendations.

• Eggs: Hyaline, globular, laid in masses.
• Nymphs: Yellowish.
• Adults: Small, red.

Nature of Damage:

• Leaves turn reddish-brown, bronzed, and dry.
• Webbing on leaves; severe infestation affects flowering and fruiting.

• Spray wettable sulphur 50 WP (2 g/litre).
• Spray dicofol 18.5 EC (2.5 ml/litre) if needed.
• Maintain field sanitation and avoid dust accumulation.

• Monitor pest populations regularly using traps and field scouting.
• Adopt resistant varieties and crop rotation.
• Promote natural enemies and use biopesticides.
• Apply chemical pesticides judiciously, following recommended doses and intervals.
• Combine cultural, biological, and chemical methods for sustainable pest management.

• Tomato is susceptible to several major insect pests causing significant yield losses.
• Pests affect all growth stages, from seedlings to fruiting plants.
• Effective management requires understanding pest biology and integrated control methods.

• Major pest of tomato, also attacks tur and gram.

Identification:

• Caterpillars: Variable color, radiating hairs, brown to greenish with dark lines.
• Moth: Medium-sized, light yellowish brown, forewings with dark spot, hindwings smoky white with black border.

Life Cycle:

• Eggs laid on tender plant parts.
• Larval period: 18–25 days; pupates in soil.
• Total life cycle: 30–40 days.

Nature of Damage:

• Larvae bore circular holes in fruits, feed on inner contents.
• Secondary infection by fungi and bacteria.
• One larva can damage 2–8 fruits.

Management:

• Collect and destroy infested fruits and larvae.
• Intercrop with marigold (1:16 rows) to attract pests.
• Deep ploughing after harvest to expose pupae.
• Install pheromone traps (Helilure) at 12/ha.
• Grow resistant varieties (Rupali, Roma, Pusa Red Plume).
• Spray Bacillus thuringiensis (2g/lit).
• Release Trichogramma spp. and Chrysoperla carnea as biocontrol agents.
• Spray HaNPV @ 250 LE/ha for biological control.
• Chemical options: Azadirachtin, Indoxacarb, Flubendiamide, Novaluron, Phosalone, Quinalphos (as per recommended doses).

• Larva: Minute, orange-yellow, apodous maggots.
• Pupa: Yellowish brown, found in soil or leaves.
• Adult: Pale yellow, small fly.

Life Cycle:

• Eggs laid singly on upper leaf surface.
• Larval period: 7–10 days; total cycle ~3 weeks.

Nature of Damage:

• Larvae mine between leaf epidermal layers, creating serpentine trails.
• Severe infestation causes leaf drying and drop.

Management:

• Collect and destroy mined leaves.
• Spray neem seed kernel extract (NSKE) 5%.

• Small greyish moth; larvae are cream to greenish with dark head.

Nature of Damage:

• Larvae mine leaves, stems, and fruits, causing blotches and fruit damage.
• Can cause up to 80–100% yield loss if unmanaged.

Management:

• Use pheromone traps for monitoring and mass trapping.
• Remove and destroy infested plant parts.
• Release natural enemies (Trichogramma spp., Nesidiocoris tenuis).
• Apply Bacillus thuringiensis or selective insecticides as per recommendations.

• Eggs: Pear-shaped, light yellow.
• Nymphs: Oval, scale-like, greenish white.
• Adults: Tiny, white, scale-like.

Nature of Damage:

• Nymphs and adults suck sap, causing chlorosis and leaf curling.
• Vector of tomato leaf curl virus.

Management:

• Uproot and destroy infected plants.
• Remove alternate weed hosts (e.g., Abutilon indicum).
• Use yellow sticky traps (12/ha).
• Apply carbofuran 3% G @ 40 kg/ha or recommended insecticides (Dimethoate, Malathion, Oxydemeton-methyl, Thiamethoxam).

• Nymphs and adults suck sap from leaves and stems.
• Plants turn yellow, become deformed, and may dry up.
• Honeydew secretion leads to sooty mould, reducing photosynthesis.

Management:

• Seed treatment with imidacloprid or thiamethoxam.
• Use yellow sticky traps.
• Spray recommended systemic insecticides if needed.

• Nymphs: Yellowish.
• Adults: Dark with fringed wings.

Nature of Damage:

• Silvery streaks on leaves, premature flower drop, bud necrosis.
• Vector of tomato spotted wilt virus.

Management:

• Uproot and destroy diseased plants.
• Use yellow sticky traps (15/ha).
• Release Chrysoperla carnea larvae (10,000/ha).
• Spray methyl demeton or dimethoate as per recommendations.

• Eggs: Hyaline, globular, laid in masses.
• Nymphs: Yellowish.
• Adults: Small, red.

Nature of Damage:

• Leaves turn reddish-brown and bronzy.
• Webbing on leaves; severe cases cause leaf drying and reduced fruit set.

Management:

• Spray wettable sulphur 50 WP (2g/lit).
• Spray dicofol 18.5 EC (2.5 ml/lit) if needed.

• Combine cultural, biological, and chemical methods for effective pest control.
• Monitor fields regularly for early pest detection.
• Promote use of resistant varieties and natural enemies.
• Minimize pesticide use to delay resistance and protect beneficial organisms.