Category: PPT Agriculture

• Mango faces several physiological disorders, pests, and diseases affecting yield and quality.
• Major problems include alternate bearing, malformation, spongy tissue, and fruit drop.
• Effective integrated management is essential for sustainable production.

• Irregular fruiting pattern with heavy crop one year and little or none the next.

Occurrence:

• Common in north Indian varieties; south Indian varieties are mostly regular bearers.

Management:

• Soil drenching with paclobutrazol (5–10 g/tree) induces flowering and increases yield.
• Proper nutrition and irrigation management help reduce alternate bearing.

• Vegetative malformation (common in seedlings and young plants).
• Floral malformation (affects bearing trees, reduces productivity).

Symptoms:

• Bunchy top: compact leaves at shoot apex; arrested shoot growth.
• Malformed panicles in floral malformation.

Management:

• Deblossoming and spraying 200 ppm NAA reduce malformed panicles.
• Remove and destroy affected shoots and panicles.

• Distal end of fruit turns black, hardens, and ripens prematurely.
• Affected fruits become unmarketable.

Causes:

• Smoke from brick-kilns (CO, CO2, SO2, acetylene) within 600 m.

Management:

• Increase chimney height of brick-kilns.
• Spray borax (0.6%) at 10–14 day intervals from fruit set.

• Cluster of small, dark green fruitlets at panicle tip (bunch tip).
• Fruitlets grow to marble size, then growth ceases.

Causes:

• Adverse climate, especially low temperature during February–March.
• Poor embryo development.

Management:

• Protect trees from adverse weather; select tolerant varieties.

• Specific to Alphonso mango; affects export quality.

Symptoms:

• Normal external appearance; internal flesh patch is spongy, yellowish, and sour.

Causes:

• High temperature, convective heat, post-harvest sun exposure.

Management:

• Use sod culture and mulching to reduce incidence.
• Harvest at three-fourths maturity.
• Use resistant hybrids (e.g., Ratna, Arka Puneet).

• High fruit drop rate, especially in first four weeks after fruit set (up to 99%).

Management:

• Regular irrigation during fruit development.
• Timely pest and disease control.
• Apply NAA (50 ppm) or 2,4-D (20 ppm) six weeks after fruit set.

• Spray phosalone 0.05%, carbaryl 2 g/L, or phosphamidon 1 mL/L.

Nut Weevil (Cryptorrhynchus mangiferae):

• Maintain orchard cleanliness; destroy adults in bark crevices.
• Spray fenthion 0.1%.

Stem Borer (Batocera rufomaculata):

• Apply monocrotophos 36 WSC (10 mL/tree) via padding.
• Apply carbofuran 3G (5 g/bore hole) and plug with mud.

Fruit Fly (Bactrocera spp.):

• Plough interspaces to expose pupae.
• Use methyl eugenol traps; remove and bury fallen fruits.

• Apply sulphur dust (350 mesh) in early morning.
• Spray wettable sulphur 0.2% or tridemorph 0.05%.

Anthracnose and Stalk/End Rot (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides):

• Spray mancozeb 0.2% or carbendazim 0.1% preharvest, 3 times at 15-day intervals.

Sooty Mould (Capnodium spp.):

• Spray dimecron 0.03% + maida 5% (1 kg maida/starch boiled in 1 L water, diluted to 20 L).

• Adopt integrated pest and disease management (IPDM) for sustainable mango production.
• Combine cultural, chemical, and biological methods for effective control.
• Regular monitoring and timely interventions are crucial.
• Use resistant varieties and proper orchard sanitation.

• Mango (Mangifera indica) is known as the ‘king of fruits’ in India.
• India accounts for about 56% of global mango production.
• Major producing states: Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka, Maharashtra, West Bengal, Gujarat.
• Mango contributes nearly 39.5% of India’s total fruit production.

• Grows in alluvial to lateritic soils; avoid poorly drained black cotton soils.
• Prefers slightly acidic soils (pH 5.5–7.5); poor growth above pH 7.5.
• Good drainage is essential for healthy growth.

Climate:

• Tropical to subtropical; can be grown up to 1,100 m above sea level.
• Optimal temperature: 24–27°C; higher temperatures improve fruit quality.
• Requires 25–250 cm annual rainfall; avoid high humidity and frost during flowering.

• Over 1,000 varieties exist; about 20 are commercially important.
• Popular varieties: Alphonso, Banganapalli, Bombay Green, Chausa, Dashehari, Fazli, Gulab Khas, Himsagar, Kesar, Kishenbhog, Langra, Mankurad, Neelum, Pairi, Totapuri.
• Varietal preference varies by state and region.
• North Indian varieties often alternate-bearers; South Indian varieties are generally regular-bearers.

• Mango is highly heterozygous and cross-pollinated.
• Polyembryonic varieties (mainly in South India) can be grown from seed; monoembryonic (North India) require vegetative propagation.
• Common propagation methods: inarching, veneer grafting, side grafting, epicotyl/stone grafting.
• Rootstock seedlings are raised from fresh seeds (sown within 4–5 weeks of extraction).

• Planting systems: square, rectangular, and hexagonal; square and rectangular are most common.
• Spacing depends on variety vigor and cropping system; typically 10–12 m for traditional planting.
• Pits of 1 m × 1 m × 1 m are prepared and filled with well-rotted farmyard manure.
• Planting is best done during the rainy season (June–September).

• High-density planting increases yield per unit area.
• Amrapali is suitable for high-density planting (2.5 m × 2.5 m spacing).
• Paclobutrazol (2 ml/tree) induces flowering in off-years.
• Pruning and use of dwarfing rootstocks (e.g., Vellaikolumban) help manage tree size.

• Training is essential in early years to develop a strong framework.
• Proper branch spacing facilitates intercultural operations.
• Pruning is minimal; mainly removal of diseased, dead, or crossing branches.

• Apply 73 g N, 18 g P2O5, 68 g K2O per year of age (up to 10 years).
• After 10 years: 730 g N, 180 g P2O5, 680 g K2O per tree/year in two split doses (June–July, Sept–Oct).
• Correct micronutrient deficiencies with foliar sprays: 0.3% zinc sulphate, 0.5% borax, 0.5% manganese sulphate.

Irrigation:

• Young plants (up to 2 years) require regular watering (about 30 L/week).
• Irrigation during pre-flowering and fruit set increases yield.
• Established trees: irrigate at 10-day intervals after fruit set.

• Intercropping reduces weed growth and nutrient loss.
• Suitable intercrops: blackgram, wheat, brinjal, onion.
• Cover crops like sunhemp, cowpea, and pea help prevent soil erosion.

• Harvest mangoes with pedicel to reduce injury and fungal infection.
• Average yield: 8 tonnes/ha; 1,000–2,000 fruits/tree during bearing age.
• Sort and grade fruits by size; use proper packaging (perforated cardboard boxes preferred).
• Store mature green mangoes at 5–16°C; avoid chilling injury.
• Postharvest treatments: waxing, hot-water treatment, individual wrapping, hydro-cooling extend shelf life.

• Mango thrives in well-drained, slightly acidic soils and warm, humid climates.
• Choose suitable varieties and hybrids for region and market demand.
• Adopt high-density planting and proper nutrient management for higher productivity.
• Intercropping and postharvest care improve sustainability and fruit quality.

• Fruits are classified based on their temperature and climatic requirements.
• Main categories: temperate, subtropical, and tropical fruits.
• Some fruits can adapt to more than one climatic zone (e.g., mango, grape).
• Agroclimatic zones help determine suitable crops and cultivars for each region.

• Vegetative and flower buds enter dormancy in late summer or autumn.
• Require substantial winter chilling for bud break and growth.
• Frost-hardy; tolerant to snowfall and ice.
• Soils are usually shallow, acidic, and rainfall is adequate.
• Found at high elevations in India (e.g., Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh).

• Intermediate temperatures; brief chilling periods may occur.
• Fruits have no distinct rest period; light frost possible.
• Rainfall varies from low to high; soils are generally neutral and sandy loam/alluvial.
• Soil fertility is often low; photoperiodic requirement is not marked.
• Regions: Punjab, Haryana, parts of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Assam.

• Chilling temperatures are absent; high temperatures prevail year-round.
• Narrow day-night temperature variation; insignificant photoperiodic requirement.
• Rainfall and soil types vary widely (clay loam, alluvial, saline, sandy, laterite).
• Major fruit crops: mango, banana, papaya, guava.
• Regions: Central, Southern, and Coastal India.

• Low and erratic rainfall (100–500 mm annually); high evapotranspiration.
• High solar radiation and wind velocity; soils are sandy with low organic matter.
• Poor water holding capacity and saline groundwater in many areas.
• Major regions: Rajasthan, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Ladakh (cold arid).

• ICAR recognizes eight major agroclimatic zones for land use planning.
• Zones include: Western/Eastern Himalayas, Bengal-Assam, Sutlej-Ganga Plains, Eastern/Southern Islands, Arid Western Plains, Semi-arid Plateaus, Western Ghats.
• Each zone is characterized by unique climate, soil, and crop suitability.

• Fifteen broad agroclimatic zones based on physiography and climate.
• Examples: Western/Eastern Himalayan, Gangetic Plains, Plateau and Hills, Coastal Plains, Western Dry Region, Island Region.
• Used for effective agricultural planning and resource allocation.

• India divided into 21 agroecological regions based on physiography, soils, bioclimate, and growing period (GP).
• Growing period: Arid (<90 days), Semi-arid (90–150 days), Subarid (150–210 days), Humid (>210 days).
• Supports precise crop and land use planning.

• Tamil Nadu has seven climatic zones based on rainfall, altitude, and irrigation sources.
• Zones: North-eastern, North-western, Western, Cauvery Delta, Southern, High Rainfall, Hilly.
• Each zone has distinct rainfall patterns, soil types, and major crops.

• Tomato is affected by several major insect pests causing significant yield loss.
• Pests attack various plant parts: leaves, stems, flowers, and fruits.
• Effective management requires understanding pest biology and damage symptoms.

• Family: Noctuidae; Order: Lepidoptera

Economic Importance:

• Serious pest in tropical and subtropical regions.
• Also attacks other crops like pigeon pea and chickpea.

Identification:

• Caterpillar: Variable color, radiating hairs, greenish with dark lines.
• Moth: Medium-sized, light brown, forewings with dark spot, smoky hindwings.

• Eggs laid on tender plant parts.
• Larval stage lasts 18–25 days; pupates in soil.
• Complete life cycle: 30–40 days.

Nature of Damage:

• Young larvae feed on foliage; older larvae bore into fruits.
• Bore circular holes, feed inside fruits, causing secondary infections.
• One larva can damage multiple fruits.

• Collect and destroy infested fruits and larvae.
• Deep ploughing after harvest to expose pupae.
• Intercrop with marigold (1:16 ratio) to attract egg-laying adults.

Biological Control:

• Release Trichogramma spp. and Chrysoperla carnea.
• Spray Bacillus thuringiensis or HaNPV.

Chemical Control:

• Use pheromone traps (Helilure) at 12/ha.
• Apply insecticides: Azadirachtin, Indoxacarb, Flubendiamide, Novaluron, Phosalone, Quinalphos as per recommended doses.

• Family: Agromyzidae; Order: Diptera

Identification:

• Larva: Minute, orange-yellow, apodous maggots.
• Adult: Pale yellow, small fly.

Life Cycle:

• Eggs laid singly on upper leaf surface.
• Larval period: 7–10 days; pupation in soil or leaves.
• Total life cycle: ~3 weeks.

Nature of Damage:

• Larvae mine between leaf epidermis, creating serpentine trails.
• Severe infestation leads to leaf drying and drop.

Management:

• Remove and destroy mined leaves.
• Spray neem seed kernel extract (NSKE) 5%.

• Family: Gelechiidae; Order: Lepidoptera

Nature of Damage:

• Larvae mine leaves, stems, and fruits, causing blotches and galleries.
• Leads to fruit damage and yield loss.

Management:

• Use pheromone traps for monitoring and mass trapping.
• Release natural enemies (Trichogramma spp.).
• Apply Bacillus thuringiensis or selective insecticides as needed.

• Family: Aleyrodidae; Order: Hemiptera

Identification:

• Egg: Pear-shaped, light yellow.
• Nymph: Oval, scale-like, greenish-white.
• Adult: Tiny, white, scale-like.

Nature of Damage:

• Nymphs and adults suck sap, causing chlorosis and leaf curling.
• Vector of tomato leaf curl virus.

Management:

• Remove and destroy infected plants and weeds.
• Use yellow sticky traps (12/ha).
• Apply carbofuran or recommended insecticides: Dimethoate, Malathion, Oxydemeton-methyl, Thiamethoxam.

• Family: Aphididae; Order: Hemiptera

Nature of Damage:

• Nymphs and adults suck sap, causing yellowing and deformation.
• Honeydew secretion leads to sooty mould growth, reducing photosynthesis.

Management:

• Seed treatment with imidacloprid or thiamethoxam.
• Use yellow sticky traps.

• Family: Thripidae; Order: Thysanoptera

Identification:

• Nymphs: Yellowish; Adults: Dark with fringed wings.

Nature of Damage:

• Silvery streaks on leaves, bud necrosis, flower drop.
• Vector of tomato spotted wilt virus.

Management:

• Uproot and destroy diseased plants.
• Use yellow sticky traps (15/ha).
• Release Chrysoperla carnea larvae.
• Spray methyl demeton or dimethoate as per recommendations.

• Family: Tetranychidae; Order: Acarina

Identification:

• Eggs: Hyaline, globular, laid in masses.
• Nymphs: Yellowish; Adults: Small, red.

Nature of Damage:

• Leaves turn reddish-brown, bronzed, and dry.
• Webbing on leaves; affects flower and fruit formation.

Management:

• Spray wettable sulphur (50 WP, 2g/lit) or dicofol (18.5 EC, 2.5 ml/lit).

• Combine cultural, biological, and chemical methods for effective pest control.
• Monitor fields regularly for early pest detection.
• Use resistant varieties and crop rotation.
• Promote natural enemies and minimize pesticide use.

• Tomato is susceptible to several insect pests causing significant yield loss.
• Major pests include fruit borer, leaf miner, whitefly, aphids, thrips, and red spider mite.
• Effective management requires understanding pest biology and damage symptoms.
• Integrated pest management (IPM) combines cultural, biological, and chemical methods.

• Family: Noctuidae; Order: Lepidoptera

Identification:

• Caterpillars: Varying color, radiating hairs, brown to greenish with dark lines.
• Moth: Medium-sized, light yellowish brown, forewings with dark spot, hindwings pale with black border.

Life Cycle:

• Eggs laid on tender plant parts.
• Larval period: 18–25 days; pupates in soil.
• Total life cycle: ~30–40 days.

• Young larvae feed on foliage; mature larvae bore into fruits.
• Circular holes on fruits; larvae feed inside, causing internal damage.
• Damaged fruits often infected by secondary pathogens.
• One larva may damage multiple fruits (2–8).

• Collect and destroy infested fruits and larvae.
• Deep ploughing after harvest exposes pupae to predators.
• Intercrop with marigold (1:16 ratio with tomato).

Biological:

• Release Trichogramma spp. and Chrysoperla carnea.
• Spray Bacillus thuringiensis (2g/litre) or HaNPV @ 250 LE/ha.

Chemical:

• Use pheromone traps (Helilure) @ 12/ha.
• Spray recommended insecticides: Azadirachtin, Indoxacarb, Flubendiamide, Novaluron, Phosalone, Quinalphos (as per label rates).

• Family: Agromyzidae; Order: Diptera

Identification:

• Larva: Minute, orange-yellow, apodous maggot.
• Adult: Pale yellow, small fly.

Life Cycle:

• Eggs laid singly on upper leaf surface.
• Larval period: 7–10 days; pupation in soil or leaves.
• Total life cycle: ~3 weeks.

• Larvae mine between leaf epidermal layers, creating serpentine trails.
• Severe infestation causes leaf drying and drop.

Management:

• Collect and destroy mined leaves.
• Spray neem seed kernel extract (NSKE) 5%.

• Family: Aleyrodidae; Order: Hemiptera

Identification:

• Eggs: Pear-shaped, light yellow.
• Nymphs: Oval, scale-like, greenish-white.
• Adults: Tiny, white, scale-like.

Nature of Damage:

• Nymphs and adults suck sap, causing chlorosis and leaf curling.
• Vector of tomato leaf curl virus.

• Uproot and destroy virus-infected plants.
• Remove alternate weed hosts (e.g., Abutilon indicum).
• Use yellow sticky traps (12/ha).
• Apply carbofuran 3% G @ 40 kg/ha.
• Spray insecticides: Dimethoate, Malathion, Oxydemeton-methyl, Thiamethoxam (as per label rates).

• Family: Aphididae; Order: Hemiptera

Nature of Damage:

• Nymphs and adults suck sap, causing yellowing and deformation.
• Honeydew secretion promotes sooty mould, reducing photosynthesis.

Management:

• Seed treatment with imidacloprid or thiamethoxam.
• Use yellow sticky traps.

• Family: Thripidae; Order: Thysanoptera

Identification:

• Nymphs: Yellowish; Adults: Dark with fringed wings.

Nature of Damage:

• Silvery streaks on leaves, bud necrosis, flower drop.
• Vector of tomato spotted wilt virus.

Management:

• Remove and destroy diseased plants.
• Use yellow sticky traps (15/ha).
• Release Chrysoperla carnea larvae (10,000/ha).
• Spray methyl demeton or dimethoate (as per label rates).

• Family: Tetranychidae; Order: Acarina

Identification:

• Eggs: Hyaline, globular, laid in masses.
• Nymphs: Yellowish; Adults: Small, red.

Nature of Damage:

• Leaves turn reddish-brown, bronzed; webbing present.
• Severe infestation leads to leaf drying and reduced fruit set.

Management:

• Spray wettable sulphur 50 WP (2g/litre).
• Spray dicofol 18.5 EC (2.5 ml/litre).

• Combine cultural, mechanical, biological, and chemical methods for sustainable pest control.
• Monitor pest populations regularly for timely intervention.
• Promote use of resistant varieties and natural enemies.
• Minimize pesticide use to prevent resistance and protect beneficial organisms.

• Insect Pest of Tomato

• Group Members Muhammad Zubair Reg#2017-uam-223 Contact 03000127002

• 1. Tomato fruit Borer. 2. Whitefly. 3. Serpentine leafminer. 4. Tomato leafminer. 5. Aphids.

• Tomato fruit Borer • Scientific Name: Helicoverpa armigera. • Order: Lepidoptera. Status Fruit borer is a serious pest of tomato as it reduces yield by up to 40%. Distribution Widely distributed in tropics, subtropics and warmer temperate regions of the world.

• • Description stages Four life stages: Egg, larva and pupa and adult. Eggs are initially white, later darkening before they hatch. Larvae are small when they emerge but can grow to about 2cm. Mature larvae are white to pinkish with a brown head

• Description stages

• Mode of damage Larval damage, especially the holes larvae make when they emerge from the fruit, can provide a pathway for disease-causing micro- organisms to enter the plant

• Non chemical Control Spray 5% Neem seed kernel extract to kill early stages larvae. Placement of 15-20 bird perches per ha helps in inviting insectivorous birds for management of the fruit borer. Use of NPV @ 250-300 LE/ha along with juggary @ 20 g/l when sprayed at 10 days interval also given protection against fruit borer. Deep ploughing after harvesting the crop to expose the pupae for natural killing affords good protection. Chemical control • Use the insecticides chlorantraniliprole, flubendiamide, cypermethrin or alpha- and zeta-cypermethrin to reduce populations. The first spray should be at the flowering stage and followed by sprays at either 10 or 15 days interval.

• Whitefly Order: Homoptera Family: Aleyrodidae Scientific Name: Bemisia tabaci Status Whiteflies are small, soft-bodied sucking insects that look like tiny white triangles, less than one-tenth of an inch long, that often rest on the undersides of plants. Several species of whiteflies may infest tomato.

• Distribution • It is distributed in tropical and sub-tropical climate including Pakistan Description stages Four description stages 1. Egg 2. Nymph 3. Pupa 4. Adult Duration stages Adult:2-5 days in summer and 24 days in november. Eggs: eggs are laid on lower and middle leavesfemale female can lay upto110 eggs. Hatch in 3-5 days in april-sep,5-17 days in oct-nov and33 days in december

• Nymph :9-14 das during april to september and 17-81 days in oct- to march pupa: 2-8 days Mode of damage 1. Sucking cell Sap 2. Injection of toxic saliva 3. Sooty mould

• non chemical control avoid cultivation of alternative host avoid use of nitrogenous fertilizers Avoid over irrigation Green lace is a effective predator Chemical control Imidacloprid Diafenthiuron Acetamiprid

• Serpentine leafminor • Order: • Diptera • Section: • Schizophora • Family: • Agromyzidae • Genus: • Liriomyza • Species: • L. brassicae

• • Food plants • wide host range, including bean, cantaloupe, celery, cucumber, eggplant, onion, pepper, potato, squash, tomato, watermelon. Ame • Description Eggs tend to be deposited in the middle of the plant; the adult seems to avoid immature leaves. Larva: The larva is legless. Adult: Adults are small, measuring less than 2 mm in length, with a wing length of 1.25 to 1.9 mm.

• • Duration stages • The average period is 21 days, can be short as 15 days.it can varies with host and temperature. Eggs are laid singly in punctures in the leaf epidermis. The eggs are small, 1/100 inch in length, and hatch 2- 4 days. • Life history • The larva crawls into the ground to pupate. A small percentage of the larvae remain hanging on the leaf and pupate there.

• • Mode of damage • Punctures caused by females during the feeding and oviposition processes can result in a stippled appearance on foliage, especially at the leaf tip and along the leaf margins. However, the major form of damage is the mining of leaves by larvae, which results in destruction of leaf mesophyll.

• Non chemical control • While not usually threatening to plants, leafminer control is often necessary to manage the highly visible tunnels in leaves that can reduce crop value. … Host plants include beans, blackberries, cabbage, lettuce, peppers, and a variety of ornamental flowers, citrus trees and shrubs … Chemical control • The use of pesticides (organophosphates, carbamates and pyrethroids) for the control of leafminer pests that attack vegetables will kill their natural enemies, as well as selecting resistant leafminer strains.

• Aphids • Order: • Hemiptera • Suborder: • Sternorrhyncha • Infraorder: • Aphidomorpha • Superfamily: • Aphidoidea Geoffroy, 1762

• • Food plants of a major agricultural pest • Description stagese smaller yellow form occurs during warmer summer conditions. The green form is larger and occurs during cooler spring and autumn temperatures, and uncrowded conditions. A. gossypii can range in colour from yellow to very dark (almost black) green. The smaller yellow form occurs during warmer summer conditions. • Duration stages • – The average reproductive period was 7.8-5.4 days on cotton plants while average reproductive period was 11.2-8.6 days on egg plants. The average nymphal duration on cotton plant was 4.8 to 5.8 days and in eggplant it was between 8.6 to 11.2 days.

• • Life span • .. The life span of a parthenogenic female is about twenty days in which time it can produce up to 85 nymphs. These mature in about twenty days at .. • Mode of damage • Aphid damage is usually most noticeable on shade trees and ornamental plantings. Leaves, twigs, stems, or roots may be attacked by aphids, whose mouthparts are designed for piercing the plant and sucking the sap. … Some aphid species form galls or cause distorted, curled, or deformed leaves.

• • Non chemical control • Aphis gossypii is found worldwide, wherever its host plants are grown. It prefers warm … Useful non-chemical contribution to Integrated Weed Management • Chemical control Imidacloprid Diafenthiuron Acetamiprid

• Tomato leafminor • Scientific name: Tuta absoluta • Phylum: Arthropoda • Higher classification: Tuta • Order: Lepidoptera • Rank: Species • Family: Gelechiidae • Class: Insecta

• • Description stages The life cycle of a leaf miner has the following stages: egg, three larval instars, a pupal instar and the adult fly. Adult leaf miners are small yellow and black coloured flies, at most only several millimetres long. Duration stages • he life cycle of a leaf miner has the following stages: egg, three larval instars, a pupal instar and the adult fly. Adult leaf miners are small yellow and black coloured flies, at most only several millimetres long.

• • Life Cycle • The Tomato leaf miner has approximately 11 generations per year, because they reproduce very rapidly. Its life span are is very short and it lives for about 30-35 days per generation. The adult females usually lay up to 260 eggs on a plant before its life cycle is over with • Mode of damage • Leaf miners cause damage to plants both directly and indirectly. The most direct damage is caused by the larvae mining the leaf tissue, leading to desiccation, premature leaf-fall and cosmetic damage. In (sub-)tropical areas this can lead to burning in fruit such as tomato and melon. Loss of leaves also reduces yield.

• • Non chemical control Tomato leaf miner larvae feed on leaves and fruits, from seedlings to mature tomato plants. Infestation is often followed by infections by secondary pathogens rendering infested crops unmarketable. An additional host plant of Tuta absoluta is the potato plant but not the tuber! Chemical control Tomato leaf miner is currently controlled by spraying specific synthetic insecticides.

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• Botanical name: Solanum lycopersicum
• Family: Solanaceae
• Chromosome number: 2n=24
• Origin: Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia; domesticated in Mexico
• Edible part: Whole fruit (fleshy berry)
• Pollination: Mainly self-pollinated, hermaphrodite flowers

• First recorded in 1554, South America
• Spread from Mexico to Europe and Asia
• Introduced to India in 1828 by British
• Probable ancestor: Solanum lycopersicum var. cerasiformae (cherry tomato)
• Father of tomato research: Dr. C. M. Rick

• Global area: ~5.16 million ha; production: ~186 million tonnes (2023)
• Top producers: China, India, Turkey, USA, Egypt
• India: 0.88 million ha; 21 million tonnes; productivity: 23.8 t/ha
• Major Indian states: Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Gujarat
• Export hubs: Pune, Bangalore, Nasik, Amaravati

• Second most important vegetable globally after potato
• Rich in ascorbic acid (31 mg/100g), lycopene, carotenoids
• Used fresh and processed (soup, sauce, ketchup, puree, paste)
• Health benefits: antioxidant, anticancer, digestive aid
• Tomato seed oil content: ~24%

• Annual herb with tap root system (depth >50 cm)
• Stem: erect, solid, hairy, glandular; height 2–4 m
• Leaves: compound, pinnatifid, irregularly toothed
• Flowers: small, yellow, borne in raceme cymes
• Fruit: fleshy berry, 2–15 cm diameter, color varies (green, yellow, red)
• Seeds: numerous, kidney-shaped, hairy

• By growth habit: Determinate (bushy, self-topping, early), Indeterminate (erect, late, needs staking)
• By fruit shape: Round, cherry, pear, oblate, etc.
• By subgenus (Muller, 1940): Eulycopersicon (red, self-compatible), Eriolycopersicon (green, wild, self-incompatible)

• Selection criteria: yield, disease resistance, fruit quality, shelf life
• IARI: Pusa Rohini, Pusa Ruby, Pusa Sadabahar, Pusa Uphar
• IIHR: Arka Vikas, Arka Abha, Arka Rakshak (disease resistant)
• IIVR: Kashi Amrit, Kashi Hemant, Kashi Aman (ToLCV resistant)
• Hybrids: Pusa Hybrid 1, Arka Vardan, Arka Meghali
• Processing: Punjab Chhuhara, Roma, Pusa Gaurav
• Protected cultivation: Indeterminate types (e.g., Pusa Ruby, Arka Abha)

• Warm season, day-neutral crop
• Optimum temperature: 20–24°C (growth), 15–20°C (fruit set)
• Red color (lycopene) best at 21–24°C; reduced above 27°C
• Soil: well-drained sandy loam to clay loam, pH 6.0–7.0
• Moderately tolerant to acid soils (pH 5.5)

• Raised beds (15 cm), 3 m x 1 m, sandy loam with organic matter
• Seed rate: OPV 400–500 g/ha; Hybrid 125–175 g/ha
• Seed treatment: Captan/Thiram 2 g/kg
• Bed drenching: Captan or copper oxychloride
• Harden seedlings by reducing water before transplanting
• Transplant 25–30 day old seedlings with 5–6 true leaves

• Resistance to soil-borne diseases and pests
• Tolerance to abiotic stresses (drought, salinity, temperature)
• Increased yield and fruit quality

Examples:

• Brimato: Tomato scion on brinjal rootstock (bacterial wilt resistance)
• Pomato: Tomato scion on potato rootstock (dual harvest)

• Deep ploughing (20–30 cm), followed by harrowing for fine tilth
• Soil solarization (optional) for pest and disease control
• Spacing: Determinate 60 x 45 cm; Indeterminate 90 x 60 cm
• Transplanting: Kharif (July), Rabi (Oct–Nov), Summer (Feb–March)

• FYM: 350 q/ha; N:P:K for OPV: 120:80:100 kg/ha; Hybrid: 200:100:120 kg/ha
• Apply ½ N and all P, K, FYM at planting; rest N as top dressing
• Mulching (25 micron) increases yield by 45–50%
• Drip irrigation saves water (up to 42%) and increases yield (up to 60%)
• Water requirement: 60 L/kg (open field), 4–22 L/kg (greenhouse)

• Weeding: 2 hand hoeings + earthing up
• Pre-emergence herbicides: metribuzin, fluchloralin, pendimethalin
• Staking: improves yield and fruit quality in indeterminate types
• Training: single, two, or three stem systems
• Pruning: remove lateral suckers, maintain 2 stems, every 8–10 days

• Harvest at breaker or half-red stage; first harvest at 70–85 days after transplanting
• Grading by color, size, maturity (Super A, Super, Fancy, Commercial)
• Storage: 12–15°C, 85–90% RH; mature green: up to 30 days, ripe: 10 days
• Yield: OPV 200–350 q/ha; Hybrid 600–750 q/ha

• Causes: irregular irrigation, moisture stress, boron deficiency
• Control: regular irrigation, borax spray, resistant varieties

Blossom End Rot

• Caused by calcium deficiency
• Control: spray CaCl₂ 0.5%, balanced irrigation

Puffiness

• Causes: poor fertilization, high N, high temp
• Control: 4-CPA/CPPU spray, balanced nutrition

Sun Scald

• Due to fruit exposure; avoid excessive pruning in summer

Blotchy Ripening, Cat Face, Golden Flakes

• Due to nutrient imbalance, abnormal growth conditions

• Yellow sticky traps, Chrysoperla release, methyl demeton/dimethoate spray

Whitefly (Bemisia tabaci)

• Remove infected plants, sticky traps, carbofuran, dimethoate/malathion spray

Leaf Miner (Liriomyza trifolii)

• Destroy mined leaves, NSKE 5% spray

Pinworm (Tuta absoluta)

• Pheromone traps, healthy seedlings, neem/Flubendiamide/Indoxacarb spray

Fruit Borer (Helicoverpa armigera)

• Trap crops, pheromone traps, Trichogramma release, Bt spray

• Raised beds, seed treatment (Trichoderma/Thiram), copper oxychloride drench

Early Blight (Alternaria solani)

• Remove debris, crop rotation, Mancozeb spray

Late Blight (Phytophthora infestans)

• Remove infected plants, crop rotation, copper oxychloride/Bordeaux mixture

Fusarium Wilt (Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. lycopersici)

• Remove infected plants, Carbendazim drench, crop rotation

Bacterial Wilt (Ralstonia solanacearum)

• Crop rotation, resistant varieties (Arka Abha, Arka Rakshak)

Mosaic (TMV)

• Disease-free seed, crop rotation, trisodium phosphate seed soak, vector control

Leaf Curl (ToLCV)

• Sticky traps, barrier crops, Imidacloprid/Dimethoate spray

• Use high-yielding, disease-resistant varieties and hybrids
• Adopt proper nursery, land, and nutrient management
• Implement grafting and protected cultivation for stress-prone areas
• Practice regular irrigation, mulching, and weed control
• Monitor and manage pests and diseases using IPM
• Harvest and store fruits at optimal maturity and conditions

• Scientific name: Solanum lycopersicum
• Family: Solanaceae
• Originated in western South America; domesticated in Central America
• Chromosome number: 2n = 24 (corrected; not 26)
• India ranks 2nd globally in tomato production

• Botanically, tomato fruit is classified as a berry
• Rich in vitamins A, C, K and antioxidants like lycopene and lutein
• Consumption helps reduce risk of cancer, supports eye health, and regulates blood pressure

• Top producers: China, India, USA, Turkey, Egypt
• In India: Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat, Odisha, West Bengal, Chhattisgarh, Bihar, Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh

• Tomato is propagated by seeds or vegetative methods
• Vegetative propagation uses plant cuttings for true-to-type plants
• Seed propagation is most common in commercial cultivation

• Warm season crop; optimal temperature: 21–24°C
• Cannot tolerate frost or high humidity
• Prefers deep, well-drained sandy loam soils (15–20 cm depth)
• Requires low to moderate rainfall (approx. 194 mm during growing season)

• Land should be well-prepared, ridged, and free of weeds
• Seed sowing: June–July (autumn-winter), November (spring-summer), March–April (hills)
• Transplant seedlings at 75–90 x 45–60 cm spacing
• Use healthy seedlings (10–12 inches tall)

• Types: Cherry, Grape, Roma, Beefsteak, Heirloom, Tomatoes on the vine, Green tomatoes
• Popular varieties: Rashmi, Pusa Early Dwarf, Rupali, Sioux, Vaishali, Abhinav, Avishkar

• Requires 1–2 inches of water per week
• Drip irrigation preferred for transplanted tomatoes
• Sprinkler irrigation for direct-seeded crops (early stages)
• Furrow irrigation used after establishment

• Apply 20–25 t/ha well-rotted FYM/compost during land preparation
• Recommended fertilizer dose: 75:40:25 kg N:P2O5:K2O per ha
• Apply half N, full P, and half K as basal; remaining N and K as top dressing

• Practices: crop rotation, cultivation, sanitation, proper field preparation
• Pre-emergence herbicide: Metribuzin
• Post-emergence herbicide: Paraquat

• Circular lesions on fruit; centers turn tan; black spots on fruit

Management:

• Avoid sprinkler irrigation during fruit ripening
• Crop rotation with non-solanaceous crops

Black Mold Disease
Pathogen: Alternaria spp.
Symptoms:

• Black or brown lesions on ripe fruit surface

Management:

• Avoid wetting foliage; use fungicides if necessary

Colorado Potato Beetle
Nature: Insect pest
Symptoms:

• Feeding damage to foliage; black and yellow striped beetle visible

Management:

• Handpick adults and larvae; destroy in soapy water
• Use Bacillus thuringiensis for larvae control

Aphids
Nature: Insect pest
Symptoms:

• Yellowing and distortion of leaves

Management:

• Use tolerant varieties; apply neem oil

• First harvest: 60–70 days after transplanting (variety dependent)
• Harvest by twisting fruit by hand or mechanically
• Average yield: 20–25 t/ha; hybrids: up to 50–60 t/ha

• Store mature (yellow) tomatoes at 12–16°C (55–60°F)
• Cold storage life: 3–4 weeks
• Do not store below 4°C (40°F) to avoid chilling injury

• Tomato is a widely grown vegetable crop worldwide.
• Botanical name: Solanum lycopersicum; Family: Solanaceae; Chromosome number: 2n=24.
• Originated in the Andean region (Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia); domesticated in Mexico.
• Introduced to India by the British in 1828.

• Annual herb with a tap root system (up to 50 cm deep).
• Stem: Erect, solid, hairy, glandular; height 2–4 m.
• Leaves: Compound, pinnatifid, irregularly toothed margins.
• Flowers: Small, yellow, borne in racemes; perfect and hypogynous.
• Fruit: Fleshy berry, globular to oblate, 2–15 cm diameter; color varies from green to red/yellow/orange.
• Seeds: Numerous, kidney-shaped, hairy, light brown.

• Determinate: Bushy, self-topping, early maturity, staking not required.
• Indeterminate: Erect, continuous growth, late maturity, staking required.

Botanical Classification (Bailey, 1949):

• L. esculentum var. commune – Common round fruited
• L. esculentum var. grandifolium – Potato-leaved
• L. esculentum var. cerasiformae – Cherry tomato
• L. esculentum var. validum – Upright tomato
• L. esculentum var. pyriformae – Pear-shaped tomato

• Rich in vitamins (A, B, C), minerals (iron, phosphorus, calcium), amino acids, sugars, and dietary fiber.
• Ascorbic acid: 16–65 mg/100g; total sugars: ~2.5% in ripe fruit.
• Used fresh, in salads, pickles, preserves, and processed products (puree, paste, ketchup, sauce, juice).
• Contains lycopene (red pigment), carotenoids (yellow), and tomatine (alkaloid).

• India: ~8.8 lakh ha, 182 lakh tonnes, productivity ~20.7 t/ha.
• Leading states: Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Gujarat.
• Major export areas: Pune, Bangalore, Nasik, Amaravati.
• Main importers: Pakistan, UAE, Bangladesh, Nepal, Oman.

• High yield, disease resistance, fruit quality, shelf life, and TSS.

Popular Varieties:

• Pusa Ruby, Arka Vikas, Arka Meghali, Arka Saurabh, Arka Abha, Pusa Early Dwarf, PKM-1, Hisar Anmol, Pant Bahar.

Hybrids:

• Arka Rakshak, Arka Samrat, Arka Shreshta, Pusa Divya, Rashmi, Rupali, IAHS-88.2.

Special Traits:

• Resistant to ToLCV: Nandi, Sankranti, Vaibhav, Arka Rakshak.
• Resistant to bacterial wilt: Arka Alok, Arka Abha, Arka Shreshta.

• Warm season crop; optimum temperature: 20–24°C.
• Fruit set best at 15–20°C; lycopene synthesis optimal at 21–24°C.
• Grows in all soils; sandy loam preferred for early crop, heavy soils for high yield.
• Soil pH: 6.0–7.0; moderately tolerant to acidic soils (pH 5.5).

• Seed rate: OPV 300–400 g/ha; Hybrids 125–175 g/ha.
• Seed treatment: Captan/Thiram @ 2 g/kg seed.
• Nursery: Raised beds, protected with shade net, use sterilized cocopeat in protrays.
• Seedlings ready in 25–30 days; hardened before transplanting.
• Transplanting at 4–5 weeks; spacing: 60 × 45 cm.

• Apply FYM @ 25 t/ha and neem cake @ 100 kg/ha before last ploughing.
• Raised beds (120 cm width) for better drainage.
• Mulching (plastic or organic) conserves moisture, controls weeds, and regulates soil temperature.
• Plastic mulch (25 micron) can increase yield by 45–50%.

• Total water requirement: 600–700 mm/ha.
• Drip irrigation is efficient, saves water (up to 42%), and increases yield (up to 60%).
• Frequent irrigation essential, especially during flowering and fruiting.
• Balanced fertilization with NPK and micronutrients is crucial.

• Weeding: Two hand hoeings and earthing up recommended.
• Pre-emergence herbicides: Metribuzin (0.35 kg/ha), Pendimethalin (1.0 kg/ha).
• Staking and training improve fruit quality and reduce disease incidence (especially for indeterminate types).
• Pruning and desuckering maintain balance between vegetative growth and fruiting.

• Ethephon (200–500 mg/L): Flower induction, rooting.
• 2,4-D (2–5 mg/L): Increases fruit set, induces parthenocarpy.
• GA3 (50–100 mg/L): Promotes shoot elongation and yield.
• PCPA (50 mg/L): Enhances fruit set under adverse conditions.

• First harvest: 60–85 days after transplanting, depending on variety.
• Harvest stages: Immature green, mature green, breaker, pink, hard ripe, overripe.
• Grading based on color, size, and maturity; BIS grades: Super A, Super, Fancy, Commercial.
• Storage: 12–15°C, 85–90% RH; mature green fruits can be stored up to 30 days.

• Open field: 50 t/ha; Greenhouse: up to 150 t/ha (Singh et al., 2013).
• Yield depends on variety, management, and environmental conditions.

• Brown, sunken lesions at blossom end; due to calcium deficiency and irregular watering.

Fruit Cracking

• Radial/concentric cracks; caused by irregular irrigation, boron deficiency, genetic factors.

Sun Scald

• Blistered, water-soaked areas on exposed fruits; aggravated by defoliation and pruning.

Puffiness

• Partially filled, light fruits; due to poor fertilization, high temperature, or moisture.

Cat Face

• Distorted blossom end with ridges and furrows; linked to low temperature during flowering.

• Regular irrigation and balanced fertilization (especially calcium and boron).
• Avoid excessive pruning and staking during hot periods.
• Grow resistant/tolerant varieties for specific disorders.
• Apply foliar sprays: CaCl2 (0.5%), borax (0.3–0.4%) as needed.

• Use yellow sticky traps, pheromone traps, and biological control (Chrysoperla, Trichogramma).
• Spray recommended insecticides (e.g., dimethoate, malathion, neem formulations) as per guidelines.
• Practice crop rotation and destruction of infested plant parts.

• Use raised beds, seed treatment with Trichoderma/Thiram, drench with copper oxychloride.

Early Blight (Alternaria solani)

• Remove debris, crop rotation, spray Mancozeb 0.2%.

Late Blight (Phytophthora infestans)

• Remove affected plants, crop rotation, drench with copper oxychloride/Bordeaux mixture.

Fusarium Wilt (Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. lycopersici)

• Remove affected plants, spot drench with carbendazim, rotate with non-host crops.

Bacterial Wilt (Ralstonia solanacearum)

• Use resistant varieties, crop rotation with non-hosts.

Mosaic (TMV), Leaf Curl (ToLCV)

• Use disease-free seed, vector control (imidacloprid, dimethoate), crop rotation.

• Use resistant varieties and healthy seedlings.
• Practice crop rotation and field sanitation.
• Monitor pests/diseases regularly; use traps and biocontrol agents.
• Apply chemicals judiciously, following recommended doses and intervals.

• Tomato is a high-value crop with diverse uses and nutritional benefits.
• Proper variety selection, climate, soil, and cultural practices are key for high yield.
• Integrated management of pests, diseases, and physiological disorders ensures quality production.
• Knowledge of post-harvest handling and storage extends shelf life and marketability.

• Monsoon refers to seasonal wind patterns causing significant rainfall, especially in South and Southeast Asia.
• Atmospheric pressure is the weight of air above a unit area, measured in millibars (mb).
• Unequal heating of the earth and its rotation create pressure differences, driving wind systems.
• Pressure distribution is shown on maps using isobars (lines of equal pressure).

• Pressure rises and falls in a daily rhythm due to radiational heating and cooling.
• More pronounced near the equator and at sea level.

Seasonal Variation:

• Caused by annual changes in solar radiation (insolation).
• Greater in tropical regions than in mid or polar latitudes.
• High pressure over continents in winter, over oceans in summer.

• Seven alternating low and high pressure belts exist from equator to poles:

1. Equatorial trough (5°N–5°S, low pressure)
2. Subtropical highs (25°–35°N/S)
3. Subpolar lows (60°–70°N/S)
4. Polar highs (at the poles)

• Pressure belts result from uneven solar heating and earth’s shape.

• Temperature: Hot air expands (low pressure); cold air contracts (high pressure).
• Altitude: Pressure decreases with height; drops ~1 hPa per 10 m ascent.
• Water vapour: Moist, warm air exerts less pressure than dry, cold air.
• Earth’s rotation: Influences pressure at subpolar belts, contributing to global wind patterns.

• Described by G.D. Coriolis (1844).
• Apparent deflection of moving air due to earth’s rotation.
• Deflects right in Northern Hemisphere, left in Southern Hemisphere.
• Not a true force, but an effect of rotation.

• Lowest pressure at center; isobars circular/elliptical.
• Anti-clockwise movement (Northern Hemisphere), clockwise (Southern Hemisphere).
• Wind speed up to 40 km/h.

Anticyclone:

• Highest pressure at center; isobars circular/elliptical.
• Clockwise movement (Northern Hemisphere), anti-clockwise (Southern Hemisphere).

• Low pressure center, wind speed 40–120 km/h.
• Common in Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea; causes heavy rain and damage.

Hurricane:

• Severe tropical cyclone, wind speed >120 km/h.
• Called typhoon (W. Pacific), willy-willy (Australia), cyclone (Indian Ocean).

Thunderstorm:

• Produced by cumulonimbus clouds, with lightning, thunder, strong winds, rain, sometimes hail.

Tornado:

• Violently rotating column of air, funnel-shaped cloud, short duration, causes severe crop loss.

Waterspout:

• Rotating air column over water, similar to tornado but weaker.

• Major wind belts: Doldrums, Trade Winds, Prevailing Westerlies, Polar Easterlies.

Doldrums:

• Near equator (5°N–5°S), low pressure, calm, variable winds, vertical air movement.

Trade Winds (Tropical Easterlies):

• Flow from subtropical highs (25°–35°N/S) to equator.
• Deflected by Coriolis force: NE in Northern, SE in Southern Hemisphere.
• Most constant winds, important for global climate.

Anti-trade Winds:

• Upper-level winds, opposite to surface trades, generally dry.

Prevailing Westerlies:

• From subtropical highs to subpolar lows (60°–70°N/S).
• SW in Northern, NW in Southern Hemisphere; irregular, high precipitation.

Polar Easterlies:

• From polar highs to subpolar lows; cold, dry winds.

• Blow downslope at night due to cooling of air near slopes.

Valley Winds (Anabatic):

• Blow upslope during day due to heating of air near slopes.

Sea Breeze:

• Daytime wind from sea to land; brings moisture, cools coastal areas.

Land Breeze:

• Nighttime wind from land to sea; drier, weaker than sea breeze.

• Transports heat, affecting temperature and humidity around crops.
• Increases transpiration and CO2 intake; can cause mechanical damage.
• Facilitates pollination and seed dispersal.
• Gentle winds help clean produce; strong, dry winds cause water loss and injury.
• Prevents frost by disrupting atmospheric inversion; can cause soil erosion.

• Wind speed measured at 3 m above ground over open terrain.
• Mean daily wind speed: average over 24 hours; annual mean from daily values.
• Winds named for direction they originate (e.g., south wind from south).
• Wind vane measures direction; windward = from, leeward = to.
• Prevailing wind: most frequent wind direction in a region.

• Westerly winds prevail over Kerala; south winds over eastern India.
• High temperatures in north India create low pressure, drawing monsoon winds.

North East Monsoon (October–December):

• High pressure in northern India shifts winds southeastward.
• North-easterly winds bring rainfall to southern and southeastern India.

• Occurs mainly in northern India; snow in hills, rain in plains.
• Western disturbances are key for winter precipitation.

Summer Rainfall:

• Received from March to May as local storms.
• Mainly in southeast peninsular India and Bengal; rare in western India.