Tag: agriculture

• Tomato is affected by several major insect pests worldwide.
• Pests cause direct damage and act as vectors for viral diseases.
• Effective management is crucial for yield and quality.

• Major pest of tomato and other crops (e.g., pigeon pea, chickpea).

• Caterpillar: Varies in color, radiating hairs, brown to greenish with dark lines.
• Moth: Medium-sized, light yellowish-brown, forewings with dark spot, hindwings pale with black border.

Life Cycle:

• Eggs laid on tender plant parts.
• Larval stage: 18–25 days.
• Pupates in soil.
• Total life cycle: 30–40 days.

• Young larvae feed on foliage; older larvae bore into fruits.
• Creates circular holes in fruits, feeds on inner contents.
• Damaged fruits often infected by secondary pathogens.
• One larva can destroy 2–8 fruits.

• Collect and destroy infested fruits and larvae.
• Deep ploughing after harvest to expose pupae.
• Intercrop tomato with marigold (1:16 rows).

Biological Control:

• Release Trichogramma spp. and Chrysoperla carnea.
• Spray Bacillus thuringiensis (2g/lit).
• Use Helicoverpa NPV (HaNPV) @ 250 LE/ha.

Chemical Control:

• Use pheromone traps (Helilure) @ 12/ha.
• Spray recommended insecticides: Azadirachtin, Indoxacarb, Flubendiamide, Novaluron, Phosalone, Quinalphos.

• Larva: Minute, orange-yellow, apodous maggots.
• Adult: Small, pale yellow flies.

Life Cycle:

• Eggs laid singly on upper leaf surface.
• Larval period: 7–10 days; pupates in soil or leaves.
• Total life cycle: ~3 weeks.

• Larvae mine between leaf epidermal layers, creating serpentine trails.
• Severe infestation causes leaf drying and drop.

Management:

• Collect and destroy mined leaves.
• Spray neem seed kernel extract (NSKE) 5%.

• Larvae mine leaves, stems, and fruits.
• Causes leaf necrosis, fruit damage, and yield loss.

Management:

• Use pheromone traps, biological control agents, and selective insecticides.

• Eggs: Pear-shaped, light yellow.
• Nymphs: Oval, scale-like, greenish-white.
• Adults: Tiny, white, scale-like.

• Nymphs and adults suck sap, causing chlorosis and leaf curling.
• Vector of tomato leaf curl virus.

Management:

• Uproot and destroy infected plants.
• Remove alternate weed hosts (e.g., Abutilon indicum).
• Use yellow sticky traps (12/ha).
• Apply carbofuran or recommended insecticides: Dimethoate, Malathion, Oxydemeton-methyl, Thiamethoxam.

• Nymphs and adults suck sap, causing yellowing and deformation.
• Honeydew secretion leads to sooty mould, reducing photosynthesis.

Management:

• Seed treatment with imidacloprid or thiamethoxam.
• Use yellow sticky traps.

• Nymphs: Yellowish.
• Adults: Dark, fringed wings.

Nature of Damage:

• Silvery streaks on leaves, bud necrosis, flower drop.
• Vector of tomato spotted wilt virus.

• Uproot and destroy diseased plants.
• Use yellow sticky traps (15/ha).
• Release Chrysoperla carnea larvae (10,000/ha).
• Spray methyl demeton 25 EC or dimethoate 30 EC @ 1 L/ha.

• Eggs: Hyaline, globular, laid in masses.
• Nymphs: Yellowish.
• Adults: Small, red.

Nature of Damage:

• Leaves turn reddish-brown, bronzed, and dry.
• Webbing on leaves; reduced flower and fruit formation.

• Spray wettable sulphur 50 WP @ 2g/lit.
• Spray dicofol 18.5 EC @ 2.5 ml/lit.

• Combine cultural, biological, and chemical methods for effective pest control.
• Monitor pest populations regularly.
• Use resistant varieties and crop rotation.
• Minimize pesticide use to prevent resistance and protect beneficial organisms.

• Tomato is susceptible to several insect pests causing significant yield loss.
• Major pests include fruit borer, leaf miner, whitefly, aphids, thrips, and red spider mite.
• Effective management requires understanding pest biology and damage symptoms.
• Integrated pest management (IPM) combines cultural, biological, and chemical methods.

• Family: Noctuidae; Order: Lepidoptera

Identification:

• Caterpillars: Varying color, radiating hairs, brown to greenish with dark lines.
• Moth: Medium-sized, light yellowish brown, forewings with dark spot, hindwings pale with black border.

Life Cycle:

• Eggs laid on tender plant parts.
• Larval period: 18–25 days; pupates in soil.
• Total life cycle: ~30–40 days.

• Young larvae feed on foliage; mature larvae bore into fruits.
• Circular holes on fruits; larvae feed inside, causing internal damage.
• Damaged fruits often infected by secondary pathogens.
• One larva may damage multiple fruits (2–8).

• Collect and destroy infested fruits and larvae.
• Deep ploughing after harvest exposes pupae to predators.
• Intercrop with marigold (1:16 ratio with tomato).

Biological:

• Release Trichogramma spp. and Chrysoperla carnea.
• Spray Bacillus thuringiensis (2g/litre) or HaNPV @ 250 LE/ha.

Chemical:

• Use pheromone traps (Helilure) @ 12/ha.
• Spray recommended insecticides: Azadirachtin, Indoxacarb, Flubendiamide, Novaluron, Phosalone, Quinalphos (as per label rates).

• Family: Agromyzidae; Order: Diptera

Identification:

• Larva: Minute, orange-yellow, apodous maggot.
• Adult: Pale yellow, small fly.

Life Cycle:

• Eggs laid singly on upper leaf surface.
• Larval period: 7–10 days; pupation in soil or leaves.
• Total life cycle: ~3 weeks.

• Larvae mine between leaf epidermal layers, creating serpentine trails.
• Severe infestation causes leaf drying and drop.

Management:

• Collect and destroy mined leaves.
• Spray neem seed kernel extract (NSKE) 5%.

• Family: Aleyrodidae; Order: Hemiptera

Identification:

• Eggs: Pear-shaped, light yellow.
• Nymphs: Oval, scale-like, greenish-white.
• Adults: Tiny, white, scale-like.

Nature of Damage:

• Nymphs and adults suck sap, causing chlorosis and leaf curling.
• Vector of tomato leaf curl virus.

• Uproot and destroy virus-infected plants.
• Remove alternate weed hosts (e.g., Abutilon indicum).
• Use yellow sticky traps (12/ha).
• Apply carbofuran 3% G @ 40 kg/ha.
• Spray insecticides: Dimethoate, Malathion, Oxydemeton-methyl, Thiamethoxam (as per label rates).

• Family: Aphididae; Order: Hemiptera

Nature of Damage:

• Nymphs and adults suck sap, causing yellowing and deformation.
• Honeydew secretion promotes sooty mould, reducing photosynthesis.

Management:

• Seed treatment with imidacloprid or thiamethoxam.
• Use yellow sticky traps.

• Family: Thripidae; Order: Thysanoptera

Identification:

• Nymphs: Yellowish; Adults: Dark with fringed wings.

Nature of Damage:

• Silvery streaks on leaves, bud necrosis, flower drop.
• Vector of tomato spotted wilt virus.

Management:

• Remove and destroy diseased plants.
• Use yellow sticky traps (15/ha).
• Release Chrysoperla carnea larvae (10,000/ha).
• Spray methyl demeton or dimethoate (as per label rates).

• Family: Tetranychidae; Order: Acarina

Identification:

• Eggs: Hyaline, globular, laid in masses.
• Nymphs: Yellowish; Adults: Small, red.

Nature of Damage:

• Leaves turn reddish-brown, bronzed; webbing present.
• Severe infestation leads to leaf drying and reduced fruit set.

Management:

• Spray wettable sulphur 50 WP (2g/litre).
• Spray dicofol 18.5 EC (2.5 ml/litre).

• Combine cultural, mechanical, biological, and chemical methods for sustainable pest control.
• Monitor pest populations regularly for timely intervention.
• Promote use of resistant varieties and natural enemies.
• Minimize pesticide use to prevent resistance and protect beneficial organisms.

• Management is the process of planning, organizing, leading, and controlling resources to achieve organizational goals.
• Essential in agriculture and allied sectors for efficient resource use and productivity.
• Principles guide managers in decision-making and problem-solving.

• Planning: Setting objectives and determining actions to achieve them.
• Organizing: Arranging resources and tasks to implement plans.
• Staffing: Recruiting, training, and retaining employees.
• Directing: Leading and motivating staff to accomplish objectives.
• Controlling: Monitoring performance and making corrections as needed.

• Division of Work: Specialization increases efficiency.
• Authority and Responsibility: Managers must have authority to give orders.
• Discipline: Respect for rules and agreements.
• Unity of Command: Each employee receives orders from one superior.
• Unity of Direction: Activities with the same objective should be directed by one manager.

• Interpersonal: Leader, liaison, and figurehead roles.
• Informational: Monitor, disseminator, and spokesperson.
• Decisional: Entrepreneur, disturbance handler, resource allocator, negotiator.
• Critical in agricultural organizations for adapting to changing environments.

• Ensures optimal use of land, labor, capital, and technology.
• Improves productivity and sustainability of farm operations.
• Facilitates adoption of innovations and best practices.
• Enhances decision-making and risk management.

• Effective management integrates planning, organizing, staffing, directing, and controlling.
• Application of principles leads to organizational success.
• Essential for achieving goals in agriculture and allied fields.

• Definition and scope of agriculture and horticulture.
• Importance of sustainable crop production.
• Role of soil management in crop yield.
• Overview of pest and disease management.

• Soil properties affecting plant growth: texture, structure, pH.
• Soil fertility and nutrient management.
• Techniques for soil conservation and erosion control.
• Use of organic and inorganic fertilizers.

• Selection of crop varieties for different agro-climatic zones.
• Crop rotation and intercropping benefits.
• Water management: irrigation methods and scheduling.
• Harvesting and post-harvest handling practices.

• Common pests and diseases in major crops.
• Principles of integrated pest management (IPM).
• Cultural, biological, and chemical control methods.
• Use of resistant varieties and quarantine measures.

• Role of forestry in environmental sustainability and agroforestry systems.
• Basic concepts of animal husbandry and livestock management.
• Common animal diseases and their control.
• Importance of veterinary care in farm productivity.

• Agriculture involves the cultivation of plants and rearing of animals for food, fiber, and other products.
• It is a critical sector for global food security and economic development.
• Key areas include crop production, animal husbandry, and sustainable farming practices.

• Horticulture focuses on the cultivation of fruits, vegetables, and ornamental plants.
• It includes practices like plant breeding, pest management, and landscape design.
• Horticulture contributes to nutrition, aesthetics, and biodiversity conservation.

• Forestry involves the management and conservation of forests and woodlands.
• It plays a vital role in carbon sequestration, biodiversity, and ecosystem services.
• Sustainable forestry practices ensure the balance between resource use and conservation.

• Veterinary sciences focus on animal health, welfare, and disease prevention.
• It encompasses veterinary medicine, surgery, and diagnostics.
• Veterinarians play a crucial role in public health and food safety.

• Integrated management combines various practices for sustainable agriculture and resource use.
• It includes integrated pest management, soil conservation, and water management.
• Emphasizes the use of technology and innovation for efficient resource utilization.

• Agriculture is the science and art of cultivating crops and raising livestock.
• It includes soil preparation, planting, crop management, and animal husbandry.
• Essential for food, fiber, fuel, and raw materials.

• Agronomy: Study of field crops and soils.
• Horticulture: Cultivation of fruits, vegetables, and ornamental plants.
• Forestry: Management of forests and forest resources.
• Animal Husbandry: Rearing of domestic animals.
• Veterinary Science: Animal health and disease management.

• Provides food security and nutrition.
• Major source of employment in rural areas.
• Supports agro-based industries and exports.
• Contributes to national income and economic development.

• Climate: Temperature, rainfall, humidity affect crop growth.
• Soil: Fertility, texture, structure influence productivity.
• Water: Essential for irrigation and livestock.
• Topography: Landform affects farming practices.

• Crop: Cultivated plant for food, fiber, or other uses.
• Livestock: Domesticated animals raised for products or labor.
• Agro-ecology: Study of ecological processes in agriculture.
• Sustainable Agriculture: Practices that maintain productivity and environmental health.

• Research in crop improvement and protection.
• Development of sustainable farming systems.
• Application of biotechnology and modern techniques.
• Extension services for farmer education.

• Definition of Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
• Importance of IPM in sustainable agriculture
• Focus on tomatoes as a key crop

• Fusarium wilt
• Blossom end rot
• Powdery mildew
• Tomato mosaic virus

• Yellowing leaves
• Wilting and stunted growth
• Dark spots on fruit
• Leaf curling

1. Crop rotation to prevent disease buildup
2. Use of resistant tomato varieties
3. Regular monitoring and scouting
4. Biological control agents

• Implementing IPM can enhance yield
• Regular education and training for farmers
• Collaboration with agricultural experts

• Bacterial canker
• Bacterial spot
• Bacterial wilt
• Bacterial speck
• Early and late blight

• Gram +Ve, non-motile bacteria
• First described in 1910
• Causes wilting and vascular discoloration

• Downward curling of lower leaves
• Light brown vascular discoloration
• Yellow bacterial ooze
• Birds eye appearance on fruits

• Infection through wounds or stomata
• Bacteria survive in soil for up to 5 years
• Spread via splashing water and contaminated tools

• Use disease-free seeds
• Hot water treatment for seeds
• Rotate crops every 3 years
• Sanitize tools and equipment

• Can cause unmarketable fruit
• Common in warm, wet climates
• Symptoms include water-soaked spots

• Small, circular water-soaked areas on leaves
• Brownish-red spots on mature fruit
• Spots may have yellow halos

• Survives in plant debris and seeds
• Spread by sprinkler irrigation
• Infection occurs through wounds

• Remove symptomatic plants
• Soak seeds in hot water
• Avoid overhead watering
• Use copper-based products cautiously

• Causes severe damage to over 200 plant species
• Symptoms include wilting during hot weather
• Visible dark streaks in infected stems

• Survives in soil and infested water
• High temperatures favor pathogen growth
• Spread through soil transfer and runoff

• No single control method is fully effective
• Use a combination of cultural practices
• Consider biological control methods

• Symptoms include dark spots on leaves
• Cool, rainy weather promotes disease
• Requires leaf wetness for infection

• Use resistant varieties
• Apply copper sprays
• Remove diseased debris promptly

• Symptoms start as small, dark lesions
• Lesions enlarge and cause defoliation
• Favorable conditions are warm and wet

• Use pathogen-free seeds
• Maintain plant vigor with proper care
• Rotate crops to reduce disease pressure

• Not a true fungus, but an Oomycete
• Causes rapid decay of fruits
• Severe in cool, moist conditions

• Select quick-maturing varieties
• Practice good crop sanitation
• Control weeds around tomato plants

• Overview of diseases affecting tomatoes.
• Importance of disease management in agriculture.
• Focus on early blight, late blight, and bacterial diseases.

• Early Blight: Alternaria solani
• Late Blight: Phytophthora infestans
• Bacterial Wilt: Ralstonia solanacearum
• Leaf Curl Virus: Tomato leaf curl virus

• Dark spots on older leaves, stems, and fruits.
• Yield losses can reach 79% in severe cases.
• Weakens plants, reducing fruit set.

• Temperatures between 15 to 27°C.
• High humidity (>90%) and rainy weather.
• Weak plants from June-July sowing are more susceptible.

• Use pathogen-free seeds and remove infected debris.
• Water in the morning to minimize leaf wetness.
• Implement crop rotation with non-Solanaceous crops.

• Caused by Phytophthora infestans.
• Can infect leaves, stems, and fruits rapidly.
• Historically linked to the Irish potato famine.

• Dark brown blotches on leaves with green-gray edges.
• Fruits develop dark, mushy spots.
• High humidity leads to white fungal growth.

• High humidity (>90%) and low temperatures (10-25°C).
• Cloudy weather with rainfall enhances spread.
• Soil-borne spread through oospores.

• Destroy infected potato piles before planting.
• Crop rotation with cereals to prevent recurrence.
• Use prophylactic sprays of copper fungicides.

• Presented by Annamalai University.
• Focus on cultivation techniques and practices.
• Importance of celery in agriculture.

• Botanical Name: Apium graveolens.
• Family: Umbelliferae/Apiaceae.
• Widely cultivated for its leafstalks and seeds.

• Biennial in colder climates; annual in plains.
• Contains 2-3% essential oil and 17-18% fatty oil.
• Essential oil contributes to flavor.

• Seeds act as a stimulant and carminative.
• Used for rheumatism treatment.
• Seed oil utilized in food and perfumery.

• Mainly cultivated in Punjab, Haryana, and UP.
• 90% of production from Punjab.
• Popular varieties: Giant Pascal, Golden Self blanching.

• Requires warm days, cool nights, and low humidity.
• Ideal soil: silt loam to loamy with moderate organic matter.
• Sowing period: July to September.

• Seedlings transplanted after 2 months.
• Fertilization: 20-30 t/ha of FYM and 100-150 kg of N/ha.
• Irrigation at fortnightly intervals.

• Blanching reduces chlorophyll in stalks.
• Methods: wrapping or earthing up soil.
• Discouraged due to reduced nutritive value.

• Harvest occurs 4-5 months after sowing.
• Average yield: 25,000 kg/ha.
• Plants cut just below the surface for market preparation.