This presentation provides an in-depth overview of the major diseases affecting brinjal (Solanum melongena), focusing on their etiology, symptoms, epidemiology, and management strategies. Emphasis is placed on the identification and integrated control of fungal, bacterial, and physiological disorders to ensure sustainable brinjal production.
Introduction to Brinjal Diseases
Brinjal (Solanum melongena) is susceptible to several economically significant diseases.
Major diseases include damping off, Phomopsis blight, bacterial wilt, Fusarium wilt, Verticillium wilt, Alternaria blight, and little leaf.
These diseases can cause substantial yield losses and affect fruit quality.
Understanding disease etiology and epidemiology is crucial for effective management.
Symptoms: Yellowing of lower leaves at flowering, premature leaf death, and browning of vascular bundles.
One or more branches may be affected; cross-sections reveal vascular discoloration.
Fusarium Wilt: Etiology and Epidemiology
Mycelium is septate, hyaline, becoming cream-colored; some isolates produce blue or red pigment.
Microconidia are ellipsoidal, 1–2 celled; macroconidia are falcate, 3–5 septate, hyaline.
Chlamydospores are thick-walled, terminal or intercalary, solitary or in chains.
Pathogen is soil-borne, survives as mycelium and chlamydospores in debris and soil.
Spread via water, contaminated equipment, and infected transplants; favored by hot, dry weather and acidic soils (pH 5.6–6.5).
Fusarium Wilt: Management
Practice crop rotation with non-solanaceous crops and use healthy seed.
Avoid water movement from infected to healthy plants.
Apply combined inorganic fertilizers and organic manures; phosphate and nitrate fertilizers reduce incidence.
Seed treatment with carbendazim (0.2%) and drenching with carbendazim/benomyl (0.1%) are effective.
Use Pseudomonas isolates from rhizosphere to reduce infection.
Alternaria Leaf Spots (Alternaria spp.)
Caused by Alternaria solani and Alternaria alternata f.sp. lycopersici.
A. solani: Dark brown concentric ring spots (target board effect), coalescing into patches, leading to defoliation.
A. alternata: Small, angular, light brown spots on leaves, stems, and branches; no yellow halo.
Alternaria Leaf Spots: Etiology and Epidemiology
A. solani: Septate, branched, light brown hyphae; beaked, muriform conidia with multiple septa.
A. alternata: Conidia are 1–5 septate, found on leaflet and stem lesions.
Pathogen survives in plant debris and is seed-borne; primary infection via conidia from soil debris.
Secondary spread by wind, water, and insects; optimal infection temperature is 25–30°C.
Alternaria Leaf Spots: Management
Remove and destroy infected plant debris; practice at least two years of crop rotation.
Use healthy seed and treat with captan (0.3%).
Remove lower foliage (15–20 cm) in indeterminate varieties to reduce humidity.
Spray chlorothalonil (0.2%) or mancozeb (0.25%) at 10–14 day intervals.
Objective Questions
Q1. Which of the following is the causal organism of Phomopsis blight in brinjal?
A. Phomopsis vexans (Diaporthe vexans)
B. Ralstonia solanacearum
C. Verticillium dahliae
D. Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. lycopersici
Answer: A
Q2. Which structure is characteristic of Phomopsis vexans in infected brinjal tissue?
A. Pycnidia
B. Sclerotia
C. Chlamydospores
D. Oospores
Answer: A
Q3. Which of the following management practices is NOT recommended for bacterial wilt of brinjal?
A. Application of carbendazim (0.2%)
B. Long crop rotation with non-solanaceous crops
C. Use of resistant cultivars/hybrids
D. Application of bleaching powder (15 kg/ha)
Answer: A
Q4. In Fusarium wilt of brinjal, which soil condition enhances disease severity?
A. Acidic soils (pH 5.6 to 6.5)
B. Alkaline soils (pH above 7.5)
C. Neutral soils (pH 7.0)
D. Calcareous soils
Answer: A
Q5. Which symptom is most characteristic of Alternaria solani infection in brinjal?
A. Dark brown spots with concentric rings (target board effect)
B. V-shaped lesions from leaf margin
C. Mummification of fruit
D. Milky bacterial ooze from stem
Answer: A
Q6. Which of the following is a distinguishing feature of Verticillium wilt in brinjal?
A. Longitudinal light brown to cream colored streaks under stem tissue
B. Pycnidia formation on fruit surface
C. Milky ooze from cross-sectioned stem
D. Target board effect on leaves
Answer: A
Q7. Which conidial characteristic is typical of Alternaria solani?
A. Beaked, muriform, dark, with 5-10 transverse septa and a few longitudinal septa
B. Filiform, curved, hyaline, and septate
C. Subcylindrical, one-celled, hyaline
D. Falcate, 3-5 septate, hyaline
Answer: A
Q8. Which of the following is NOT a recommended chemical for seed treatment against Phomopsis blight in brinjal?
A. Streptocycline
B. Carbendazim (0.2%)
C. Thiophenate methyl (0.2%)
D. Captan (0.3%)
Answer: A
Q9. Which environmental condition favors the development of bacterial wilt in brinjal?
A. High soil moisture and high soil temperature
B. Low soil moisture and low temperature
C. Acidic soils with low nitrogen
D. Cool, dry weather
Answer: A
Q10. Which of the following statements about Fusarium wilt management in brinjal is correct?
A. Application of ammonium fertilizers increases disease development
B. Application of nitrate fertilizers increases disease development
C. Monoculture reduces disease incidence
D. Hot dry weather suppresses wilt development
Answer: A
Mango, a major tropical fruit crop, is susceptible to a range of fungal, bacterial, and algal diseases that can significantly impact yield and fruit quality. Understanding the symptoms, causal organisms, and management strategies for these diseases is essential for sustainable mango production. This presentation provides an overview of the most important mango diseases, their identification, and integrated management approaches.
Major Diseases of Mango
Anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides)
Powdery mildew (Oidium mangiferae)
Mango malformation (Fusarium moniliforme var. subglutinans)
Stem end rot (Botryodiplodia theobromae)
Red rust (Cephaleuros virescens)
Grey blight (Pestalotia mangiferae)
Sooty mould (Capnodium mangiferae)
Anthracnose: Symptoms and Causal Organism
Caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, a widespread fungal pathogen.
Symptoms include leaf spots, blossom blight, wither tip, twig blight, and fruit rot.
Small, blister-like spots develop on leaves and twigs; young leaves wither and dry.
Fruits show black spots; pulp hardens, cracks, and decays at ripening, leading to fruit drop.
Severe infections cause dieback of branches and significant yield loss.
Anthracnose: Management
Spray Pseudomonas fluorescens (FP 7) at 3-week intervals from October at 5 g/liter on flower branches.
Apply 5–7 sprays, including applications on flowers and fruit bunches.
Pre-storage treatment: hot water (50–55°C) for 15 minutes or dip in Benomyl (500 ppm) or Thiobendazole (1000 ppm) for 5 minutes.
Practice field sanitation and remove infected plant debris to reduce inoculum.
Powdery Mildew: Symptoms and Causal Organism
Caused by Oidium mangiferae (syn. Acrosporium mangiferae).
Affects leaves, flowers, panicle stalks, and young fruits.
White powdery growth appears on affected parts; severe infection leads to leaf shedding.
Infected fruits fail to develop and may drop at pea size.
Pathogen survives as dormant mycelium in leaves; spreads by airborne conidia.
Powdery Mildew: Management
Dust plants with fine sulphur (250–300 mesh) at 0.5 kg/tree.
First application after flowering, second after 15 days.
Destroy diseased plants and use disease-free planting material.
Spray 100–200 ppm NAA (naphthalene acetic acid) during October to reduce incidence.
Prune diseased parts along with 15–20 cm of healthy tissue.
Follow up with Carbendazim (0.1%) or Captafol (0.2%) sprays.
Stem End Rot: Symptoms and Causal Organism
Primarily caused by Botryodiplodia theobromae (syn. Diplodia natalensis).
Initial symptom: darkening of epicarp around fruit pedicel, forming a circular black patch.
Under humid conditions, infection spreads rapidly, turning the whole fruit black within days.
Pulp becomes brown and soft; disease often spreads from dead twigs and bark, especially during rains.
Stem End Rot: Management
Prune and destroy infected twigs to reduce inoculum.
Spray Carbendazim or Thiophanate-methyl (0.1%) or Chlorothalonil (0.2%) at fortnightly intervals during rainy season.
Maintain orchard hygiene and avoid injuries to fruits during harvest.
Red Rust: Symptoms and Causal Organism
Caused by the algal pathogen Cephaleuros virescens.
Rusty, circular, slightly elevated spots appear on leaves and young twigs.
Spots may coalesce to form irregular lesions; mature spores fall off, leaving a cream to white velvety texture.
Reduces photosynthetic area and weakens affected branches.
Red Rust: Management
Spray Bordeaux mixture (0.6%) or copper oxychloride (0.25%) on affected trees.
Remove and destroy heavily infected plant parts to limit spread.
Grey Blight: Symptoms and Causal Organism
Caused by Pestalotia mangiferae.
Brown spots develop on leaf margins and tips, enlarging and turning dark brown.
Black acervuli (fruiting bodies) appear on spots; fungus survives on leaves for over a year.
Spread by wind-borne conidia; severe during monsoon with 20–25°C temperature and high humidity.
Grey Blight: Management
Remove and destroy infected plant parts to reduce inoculum.
Spray copper oxychloride (0.25%), Mancozeb (0.25%), or Bordeaux mixture (1.0%).
Sooty Mould: Symptoms and Causal Organism
Caused by Capnodium mangiferae, a saprophytic fungus.
Superficial black mycelial growth develops on leaves, stems, and fruits.
Fungus grows on honeydew secreted by sap-sucking insects (jassids, aphids, scale insects).
Black encrustation reduces photosynthetic activity and fruit quality.
Sooty Mould: Management
Simultaneously manage sap-sucking insects and sooty mould.
Spray systemic insecticides such as Monocrotophos or methyl demeton to control insect vectors.
Apply starch solution (1 kg starch/maida in 5 liters water, boiled and diluted to 20 liters) to affected parts; dried starch flakes remove fungus.
Objective Questions
Q1. Which pathogen is responsible for causing anthracnose in mango?
A. Colletotrichum gloeosporioides
B. Oidium mangiferae
C. Fusarium moniliforme var. subglutinans
D. Botrydiplodia theobromae
Answer: A
Q2. Which of the following is NOT a symptom of mango malformation caused by Fusarium moniliforme var. subglutinans?
A. Bunchy top phase in nursery
B. Black encrustation on leaves
C. Floral malformation
D. Vegetative malformation
Answer: B
Q3. Which management practice is recommended for controlling powdery mildew in mango?
A. Dusting fine sulphur at 0.5 kg/tree
B. Spraying Bordeaux mixture 1.0%
C. Treating fruits with hot water at 50-55°C
D. Spraying Monocrotophos
Answer: A
Q4. Which disease of mango is characterized by the formation of black encrustation on leaves due to fungal growth on sugary secretions?
A. Sooty mould
B. Grey blight
C. Red rust
D. Anthracnose
Answer: A
Q5. Which chemical is NOT recommended for the management of mango anthracnose before storage?
A. Benomyl (500 ppm)
B. Thiobendazole (1000 ppm)
C. Wettable sulphur (0.2%)
D. Hot water treatment at 50-55°C
Answer: C
Q6. The causal organism of stem end rot in mango is:
A. Diplodia natalensis
B. Cephaleuros mycoides
C. Pestalotia mangiferae
D. Capnodium mangiferae
Answer: A
Q7. Which symptom is specifically associated with red rust of mango?
A. Rusty, circular, slightly elevated spots on leaves
B. Brown spots with black acervuli on leaf margins
C. Black spots on fruit with hardening of pulp
D. Black encrustation affecting photosynthesis
Answer: A
Q8. Which of the following is a recommended management strategy for grey blight in mango?
A. Spraying copper oxychloride 0.25%
B. Dusting with fine sulphur
C. Spraying systemic insecticides
D. Dipping fruits in Benomyl solution
Answer: A
Q9. What is the primary mode of secondary spread for powdery mildew in mango?
A. Air borne conidia
B. Rain splash
C. Insect vectors
D. Soil-borne sclerotia
Answer: A
Q10. Which of the following is NOT a recommended management practice for sooty mould in mango?
A. Spraying systemic insecticides for insect control
B. Spraying starch solution to remove fungus
C. Spraying Bordeaux mixture 1.0%
D. Removing flakes formed by dried starch
Answer: C
This presentation provides an in-depth overview of major diseases affecting brinjal (eggplant), focusing on their pathogens, symptoms, epidemiology, and management strategies. Emphasis is placed on the biology of the causal agents, disease cycles, and integrated approaches for effective control. Understanding these aspects is crucial for sustainable brinjal production and minimizing crop losses.
Little Leaf Disease of Brinjal
Caused by Phytoplasma, an ovoid to spherical pathogen localized in phloem sieve tubes.
Characterized by small, yellow, soft leaves with shortened petioles and internodes, giving a bushy appearance.
Axillary buds enlarge but remain stunted; flowering is rare and flowers, if present, remain green.
Fruiting is uncommon; any formed fruits are hard, necrotic, and often mummified.
Pathogen survives in weed hosts and is transmitted mainly by jassids (Hishimonas phycitis) and less efficiently by Empoasca devastans.
Epidemiology and Management of Little Leaf Disease
Collateral hosts include Datura spp., Vinca rosea, Argemone mexicana, chilli, tomato, and tobacco.
Disease cycle involves survival in weed hosts and transmission by insect vectors.
Management includes use of tolerant varieties (Pusa Purple Round, Pusa Purple Cluster, Arka Sheel).
Destruction of infected plants and eradication of solanaceous weeds are essential.
Chemical control: Spray methyl demeton (2 ml/L) or apply phorate granules; seed dip in tetracycline (10–50 ppm) recommended.
Bacterial Wilt of Brinjal
Caused by Ralstonia solanacearum, a Gram-negative, motile rod with polar flagella.
Race 1 infects solanaceous crops (tomato, eggplant) and some non-solanaceous hosts.
Symptoms include sudden wilting, leaf epinasty, yellowing, stunting, and browning of vascular tissues.
Whitish bacterial exudate may be observed from cross-sections of infected stems.
Epidemiology and Management of Bacterial Wilt
Pathogen is both soil- and seed-borne, surviving in plant debris, wild hosts, and weeds.
Spread occurs via irrigation water, infested soil, and contaminated tools.
Favored by high soil moisture and temperature.
Management: Grow resistant varieties (Pant Samrat, Arka Nidhi, Arka Neelakantha, Surya, BB 1, 44, 49).
Practices include crop rotation with non-solanaceous crops, green manuring (Brassica spp.), soil solarization, and biological control (Pseudomonas fluorescens, Bacillus spp., Erwinia spp.).
Integrated Management of Bacterial Wilt
Nursery: Treat seeds with talc-based Pseudomonas fluorescens (10g/100g seed); apply to nursery soil (50g/kg soil).
Main field: Dip seedlings in P. fluorescens or Bacillus subtilis suspension (25g talc formulation/L water) for 20–30 minutes before transplanting.
Drench leftover solution around root zones (50 ml/plant) to enhance protection.
Phomopsis Fruit Rot (Blight) of Brinjal
Severe in tropical and subtropical regions; first reported in India (Gujarat, 1935).
Pathogen produces septate, hyaline mycelium; pycnidia become erumpent with age.
Conidia are of two types: alpha (subcylindrical) and beta (filiform, curved); perfect stage forms perithecia with bicelled ascospores.
Attacks all growth stages, causing damping-off in nurseries, collar rot in young plants, and fruit rot in mature plants.
Symptoms and Epidemiology of Phomopsis Fruit Rot
Leaf symptoms: Circular to irregular grayish-brown spots with light centers; yellowing and premature leaf drop.
Stem lesions: Dark brown, oval, with grayish centers and pycnidia; can cause cankers and plant toppling.
Fruit symptoms: Pale, sunken spots that enlarge and become watery, leading to soft rot and mummification.
Pathogen is seed-borne and survives in plant debris as mycelium and pycnidia.
Dissemination via rain splash, irrigation, tools, and insects.
Management of Phomopsis Fruit Rot
Remove and destroy diseased crop debris to reduce inoculum.
Practice crop rotation and summer ploughing to minimize pathogen survival.
Use disease-free seed; hot water treat seed at 50°C for 30 minutes.
Seed treatment with thiophanate methyl (1g/kg seed) recommended.
Spray thiophanate methyl or carbendazim (0.1%) twice at 20-day intervals for effective control.
Cercospora Leaf Spot of Brinjal
Caused by Cercospora spp., leading to significant yield losses under high humidity.
Symptoms: Large, circular to irregular brown or grayish-brown leaf spots; coalescence leads to premature leaf drop and occasional fruit rot.
Fungus survives in infected plant debris and seeds; warm days, cool nights, and high humidity favor disease development.
Transmission facilitated by moist wind, irrigation water, and insects.
Management of Cercospora Leaf Spot
Adopt cultural practices: Destroy crop debris, rotate crops, use disease-free seeds, and maintain wider plant spacing.
Initiate fungicidal sprays (zineb 0.25%, carbendazim 0.1%, or thiophanate methyl 0.1%) at disease onset.
Repeat sprays at 10–14 day intervals for sustained protection.
Objective Questions
Q1. Which pathogen is responsible for little leaf disease in brinjal?
A. Phytoplasma
B. Ralstonia solanacearum
C. Cercospora melongenae
D. Phomopsis vexans
Answer: A
Q2. Which vector is considered a less efficient transmitter of little leaf disease in brinjal?
A. Hishimonas phycitis
B. Emposca devastans
C. Bemisia tabaci
D. Myzus persicae
Answer: B
Q3. Which management practice is NOT recommended for bacterial wilt of brinjal?
A. Use of resistant varieties like Pant Samrat and Arka Nidhi
B. Green manuring with Brassica species
C. Spraying methyl demeton
D. Soil solarization with transparent polyethylene sheet
Answer: C
Q4. What is the main symptom of Phomopsis fruit rot on brinjal fruits?
A. Small pale sunken spots that enlarge and cover the fruit surface
B. Water-soaked lesions with concentric rings
C. Powdery white growth on fruit surface
D. Black streaks along the fruit
Answer: A
Q5. Which of the following is NOT a collateral host for little leaf phytoplasma in brinjal?
A. Datura fastuosa
B. Vinca rosea
C. Brassica juncea
D. Argemone mexicana
Answer: C
Q6. Which of the following is a recommended seed treatment for managing Phomopsis fruit rot in brinjal?
A. Tetracycline 10-50 ppm
B. Hot water at 50°C for 30 minutes
C. Carbendazim 0.5% for 10 minutes
D. Copper oxychloride 0.2%
Answer: B
Q7. Which environmental condition most favors the development of Cercospora leaf spot in brinjal?
A. High humidity and heavy persistent dews
B. Low temperature and dry weather
C. High soil salinity
D. Alkaline soil pH
Answer: A
Q8. Which symptom is characteristic of bacterial wilt in brinjal?
A. Sudden wilting and death of infected plants
B. Mosaic pattern on leaves
C. Leaf curling and stunting
D. Brown pustules on stems
Answer: A
Q9. Which of the following is NOT a management strategy for little leaf disease in brinjal?
A. Destruction of affected plants
B. Eradication of solanaceous weed hosts
C. Crop rotation with solanaceous crops
D. Seed dip in tetracycline
Answer: C
Q10. Which type of conidia produced by Phomopsis fruit rot pathogen has an unclear role in disease epidemiology?
A. Alpha conidia
B. Beta conidia
C. Gamma conidia
D. Delta conidia
Answer: B
This presentation covers major diseases of potato, focusing on their symptoms, etiology, disease cycles, and management strategies. Key topics include fungal and viral pathogens, disease transmission, and integrated disease management. Understanding these diseases is essential for effective crop protection, yield improvement, and sustainable potato production. Important academic keywords: pathogen, symptoms, disease cycle, management, transmission.
Introduction to Potato Diseases
Potato is susceptible to various fungal and viral diseases.
Major diseases include early blight, late blight, black scurf, leaf roll, and mosaic viruses.
Effective management requires understanding pathogen biology and disease cycles.
Early Blight – Alternaria solani
Pathogen: Alternaria solani (fungus) Symptoms:
Small, dark lesions with concentric rings (bull’s eye) on older leaves.
Yellowing tissue around spots; severe cases cause foliage death.
Stem lesions may girdle plants near soil line.
Etiology:
Septate, branched, light brown mycelium; conidia borne in chains, obclavate, muriform.
Disease Cycle:
Primary infection from mycelium/conidia in plant debris.
Secondary spread by wind, water, or rain splash.
Management:
Use disease-free seed and crop rotation.
Remove and destroy infected debris.
Fungicide sprays: Mancozeb 0.25%, Chlorothalonil 0.2%, or Zineb 0.25% at intervals.
Rogue diseased plants; control aphids (Phorate 10G, 10 kg/ha).
Early harvesting and hygiene reduce spread.
Summary: Integrated Disease Management in Potato
Use certified, disease-free seed tubers for all plantings.
Practice crop rotation and field sanitation to reduce inoculum.
Apply recommended fungicides and insecticides judiciously.
Grow resistant varieties where available.
Monitor fields regularly for early detection and management.
Objective Questions
Q1. Which pathogen is responsible for early blight in potatoes?
A. Phytophthora infestans
B. Alternaria solani
C. Rhizoctonia solani
D. Potato leaf roll virus
Answer: B
Q2. What is a common symptom of late blight on potato leaves?
A. Black scurf
B. Concentric rings
C. Water-soaked spots
D. Leaf roll
Answer: C
Q3. Which management practice is recommended for controlling early blight in potatoes?
A. Use of resistant varieties
B. Spraying with chlorothalonil
C. Planting in infected soil
D. Avoiding crop rotation
Answer: B
Q4. What is the primary source of infection for late blight in potatoes?
A. Infected soil
B. Airborne sporangia
C. Aphid transmission
D. Seed tubers
Answer: D
Q5. Which symptom is associated with black scurf caused by Rhizoctonia solani?
A. Leaf roll
B. Greasy lesions
C. Sclerotia on tubers
D. Yellow chlorotic halo
Answer: C
Q6. What is a symptom of potato leaf roll virus?
A. Concentric rings on leaves
B. Upward leaf roll
C. Water-soaked spots
D. Black streaks in veins
Answer: B
Q7. Which virus is associated with severe mosaic in potatoes?
A. Potato virus X
B. Potato virus Y
C. Potato leaf roll virus
D. Phytophthora infestans
Answer: B
Q8. What is a symptom of mild mosaic in potatoes?
A. Rugosity and twisting of leaves
B. Interveinal necrosis
C. Light yellow mottling
D. Black scurf
Answer: C
Q9. Which management strategy is used for controlling potato leaf roll virus?
A. Spraying with mancozeb
B. Use of disease-free certified seed
C. Planting in infected soil
D. Avoiding aphid control
Answer: B
Q10. What is a characteristic symptom of rugose mosaic in potatoes?
A. Purplish lesions on tubers
B. Shriveled leaves hanging by a thread
C. Concentric rings on leaves
D. Upward leaf roll
Answer: B
This lecture covers key aspects of grape cultivation, focusing on major nutrient disorders, corrective measures, growth regulators, physiological disorders, and pest and disease management. It also discusses optimal harvesting, storage, and raisin production practices, essential for maximizing yield and fruit quality in viticulture.
Introduction to Grape Cultivation
Grapes (Vitis vinifera) are a major fruit crop grown globally for fresh consumption, raisins, and wine.
Optimal growth requires balanced nutrition, pest and disease management, and proper cultural practices.
Understanding disorders and their management is crucial for high yield and quality.
Nutrient Disorders in Grapes
Common deficiencies: Nitrogen, Potassium, Magnesium, Zinc, Boron, Iron.
Symptoms include chlorosis, poor fruit set, stunted growth, and leaf necrosis.
Soil and leaf analysis help diagnose nutrient disorders.
Corrective Measures for Nutrient Disorders
Apply recommended fertilizers based on soil and tissue analysis.
Use foliar sprays for micronutrient deficiencies (e.g., ZnSO4 for zinc, Fe-EDTA for iron).
Incorporate organic manures and green manures to improve soil health.
Maintain proper irrigation to aid nutrient uptake.
Growth Regulators in Grapes
Gibberellic acid (GA3) used to increase berry size and improve cluster looseness.
Apply 25 ppm GA3 at calyptra fall and pepper stages for seedless varieties.
Potassium chloride (0.2%) sprayed at 20 and 40 days after berry set for uniform ripening.
Physiological Disorders in Grapes
Berry cracking: Caused by irregular watering or boron deficiency.
Uneven ripening: Linked to potassium deficiency or hormonal imbalance.
Poor fruit set: Often due to zinc or boron deficiency.
Major Pests of Grapes and Management
Nematodes
Apply carbofuran 60 g/vine one week before pruning; irrigate well.
Use neem cake 200 g/vine and Pseudomonas fluorescens for biocontrol.
Flea Beetles
Spray phosalone 2 ml/l after pruning; repeat 2–3 times as needed.
Thrips
Spray dimethoate 2 ml/l for control.
Mealy Bug
Spray monocrotophos 2 ml/l; use sticky bands and natural predators for IPM.
Major Diseases of Grapes and Management
Powdery Mildew
Caused by Uncinula necator.
Symptoms: White powdery growth on leaves, shoots, and berries.
Management: Sulphur dusting @ 6–12 kg/ha; use resistant varieties.
Downy Mildew
Caused by Plasmopara viticola.
Symptoms: Yellowish oil spots on leaves, white downy growth on lower surface.
Management: Spray 1% Bordeaux mixture; ensure good air circulation.
Harvesting, Yield, and Storage of Grapes
Harvest only after full ripening for best quality.
Heat requirement: 2900–3600 degree days for most varieties.
Average yields: Seedless – 15 t/ha/yr; Muscat – 30 t/ha/yr; Pachadraksha – 40 t/ha/yr; Anab-e-Shahi/Arka hybrids – 20 t/ha/yr.
Room temperature storage: Up to 7 days; cold storage (-2 to -1.5°C): 40–45 days.
Raisin Production from Grapes
Raisins are a major by-product in grape-growing regions.
Grapes with 17° Brix and above are suitable; 20–23° Brix is standard for high-quality raisins.
Proper drying and storage are essential to prevent spoilage.
Objective Questions
Q1. Which chemical is recommended for nematode control in grapes?
A. Dimethoate
B. Carbofuran
C. Phosalone
D. Monocrotophus
Answer: B
Q2. What is the application rate of neem cake per vine for nematode control?
A. 100 g
B. 200 g
C. 300 g
D. 400 g
Answer: B
Q3. Which pest is managed by spraying Phosalone after pruning?
A. Thrips
B. Mealy bug
C. Flea beetles
D. Nematode
Answer: C
Q4. What is the recommended concentration of Dimethoate for thrips control?
A. 1 ml/lit
B. 2 ml/lit
C. 3 ml/lit
D. 4 ml/lit
Answer: B
Q5. Which disease is controlled by sulphur dusting at 6-12 kg/ha?
A. Downy mildew
B. Powdery mildew
C. Anthracnose
D. Botrytis
Answer: B
Q6. For uniform ripening, grape bunches are sprayed with what concentration of K chloride?
A. 0.1%
B. 0.2%
C. 0.5%
D. 1%
Answer: B
Q7. At which stage are seedless grape clusters dipped in 25 ppm GA for berry size increase?
A. Flowering stage
B. Calyptra fall stage
C. Veraison stage
D. Harvest stage
Answer: B
Q8. What is the annual yield of Muscat grape variety per hectare?
A. 15 t
B. 20 t
C. 30 t
D. 40 t
Answer: C
Q9. What is the optimum storage temperature for grapes in cold storage?
A. 0°C
B. -1°C
C. -2 to -1.5°C
D. -5°C
Answer: C
Q10. Grapes used for raisin making should have a minimum brix value of:
A. 10°
B. 15°
C. 17°
D. 20°
Answer: C
This presentation covers the advanced production technology of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), a globally significant vegetable crop. It details the origin, botanical characteristics, varietal selection, cultural practices, and integrated pest and disease management essential for maximizing yield and quality. The content is structured for academic and competitive exam preparation, emphasizing recent trends and scientific principles in tomato cultivation.
Basic Information & Introduction
Botanical name: Solanum lycopersicum
Family: Solanaceae
Chromosome number: 2n=24
Origin: Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia; domesticated in Mexico
Use high-yielding, disease-resistant varieties and hybrids
Adopt proper nursery, land, and nutrient management
Implement grafting and protected cultivation for stress-prone areas
Practice regular irrigation, mulching, and weed control
Monitor and manage pests and diseases using IPM
Harvest and store fruits at optimal maturity and conditions
Objective Questions
Q1. Which variety of tomato is specifically resistant to Tomato Leaf Curl Virus and bacterial wilt?
A. Arka Vardan
B. Arka Ananya
C. Pusa Rohini
D. Kashi Vishesh
Answer: B
Q2. What is the ideal temperature range for maximum lycopene production in tomato fruits?
A. 10-15°C
B. 18-20°C
C. 21-24°C
D. 27-30°C
Answer: C
Q3. Which physiological disorder in tomato is primarily caused by calcium deficiency?
A. Fruit cracking
B. Puffiness
C. Blossom end rot
D. Sun scald
Answer: C
Q4. Which of the following is a wild species of tomato resistant to salt?
A. S. pennellii
B. S. cheesmani
C. S. chilense
D. S. peruvianum
Answer: B
Q5. For nursery raising of hybrid tomato, what is the recommended seed rate per hectare?
A. 400-500g
B. 125-175g
C. 200-250g
D. 50-75g
Answer: B
Q6. Which training system is commonly used for tomato plants to maintain balance between vegetative growth and production?
A. Single stem
B. Two stem
C. Three stem
D. Four stem
Answer: B
Q7. Which chemical is recommended for pre-emergence weed control in tomato at 1.0 kg/ha?
A. Fluchloralin
B. Pendimethalin
C. Metribuzin
D. Glyphosate
Answer: B
Q8. Which hybrid tomato variety is resistant to root knot nematode?
A. Arka Meghali
B. Arka Vardan
C. Pusa Hybrid-1
D. Kashi Aman
Answer: B
Q9. What is the main cause of blotchy ripening in tomato fruits?
A. Boron deficiency
B. Calcium deficiency
C. Imbalance of nitrogen and potassium
D. High temperature
Answer: C
Q10. Which pest is managed by releasing Trichogramma at 1 lakh per hectare at 7-day intervals?
A. Thrips
B. Fruit borer
C. Pinworm
D. Leaf miner
Answer: B
Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) is a globally significant vegetable crop in the Solanaceae family, valued for its nutritional content and economic importance. This presentation covers the production technology of tomato, including climate and soil requirements, propagation, varieties, crop management, and major diseases and pests. Emphasis is placed on best practices for high yield and quality, relevant for competitive exams and academic study.
Introduction to Tomato
Scientific name: Solanum lycopersicum
Family: Solanaceae
Originated in western South America; domesticated in Central America
Chromosome number: 2n = 24 (corrected; not 26)
India ranks 2nd globally in tomato production
Botanical and Nutritional Aspects
Botanically, tomato fruit is classified as a berry
Rich in vitamins A, C, K and antioxidants like lycopene and lutein
Consumption helps reduce risk of cancer, supports eye health, and regulates blood pressure
Major Tomato Growing Regions
Top producers: China, India, USA, Turkey, Egypt
In India: Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat, Odisha, West Bengal, Chhattisgarh, Bihar, Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh
Propagation Methods
Tomato is propagated by seeds or vegetative methods
Vegetative propagation uses plant cuttings for true-to-type plants
Seed propagation is most common in commercial cultivation
Climate, Soil, and Rainfall Requirements
Warm season crop; optimal temperature: 21–24°C
Cannot tolerate frost or high humidity
Prefers deep, well-drained sandy loam soils (15–20 cm depth)
Requires low to moderate rainfall (approx. 194 mm during growing season)
Land Preparation and Planting
Land should be well-prepared, ridged, and free of weeds
Seed sowing: June–July (autumn-winter), November (spring-summer), March–April (hills)
Transplant seedlings at 75–90 x 45–60 cm spacing
Use healthy seedlings (10–12 inches tall)
Major Types and Varieties of Tomato
Types: Cherry, Grape, Roma, Beefsteak, Heirloom, Tomatoes on the vine, Green tomatoes
Popular varieties: Rashmi, Pusa Early Dwarf, Rupali, Sioux, Vaishali, Abhinav, Avishkar
Irrigation Management
Requires 1–2 inches of water per week
Drip irrigation preferred for transplanted tomatoes
Sprinkler irrigation for direct-seeded crops (early stages)
Furrow irrigation used after establishment
Manures and Fertilizers
Apply 20–25 t/ha well-rotted FYM/compost during land preparation
Recommended fertilizer dose: 75:40:25 kg N:P2O5:K2O per ha
Apply half N, full P, and half K as basal; remaining N and K as top dressing
Weed Management
Practices: crop rotation, cultivation, sanitation, proper field preparation
Circular lesions on fruit; centers turn tan; black spots on fruit
Management:
Avoid sprinkler irrigation during fruit ripening
Crop rotation with non-solanaceous crops
Black Mold Disease Pathogen: Alternaria spp. Symptoms:
Black or brown lesions on ripe fruit surface
Management:
Avoid wetting foliage; use fungicides if necessary
Colorado Potato Beetle Nature: Insect pest Symptoms:
Feeding damage to foliage; black and yellow striped beetle visible
Management:
Handpick adults and larvae; destroy in soapy water
Use Bacillus thuringiensis for larvae control
Aphids Nature: Insect pest Symptoms:
Yellowing and distortion of leaves
Management:
Use tolerant varieties; apply neem oil
Harvesting and Yield
First harvest: 60–70 days after transplanting (variety dependent)
Harvest by twisting fruit by hand or mechanically
Average yield: 20–25 t/ha; hybrids: up to 50–60 t/ha
Post-Harvest Handling and Storage
Store mature (yellow) tomatoes at 12–16°C (55–60°F)
Cold storage life: 3–4 weeks
Do not store below 4°C (40°F) to avoid chilling injury
Objective Questions
Q1. What is the scientific name of tomato?
A. Solanum tuberosum
B. Solanum lycopersicum
C. Lycopersicon esculentum
D. Solanum melongena
Answer: B
Q2. Which country is the largest producer of tomatoes?
A. India
B. USA
C. China
D. Turkey
Answer: C
Q3. What is the chromosome number of tomato?
A. 2n=24
B. 2n=26
C. 2n=28
D. 2n=32
Answer: B
Q4. Which irrigation method is commonly used for stand establishment of transplanted tomatoes?
A. Furrow irrigation
B. Drip irrigation
C. Flood irrigation
D. Basin irrigation
Answer: B
Q5. Which of the following is NOT a major type of tomato?
A. Cherry tomato
B. Roma tomato
C. Plum tomato
D. Beefsteak tomato
Answer: C
Q6. What is the recommended fertilizer dose (N:P2O5:K2O) per hectare for tomato?
A. 60:30:30
B. 75:40:25
C. 90:60:60
D. 50:25:25
Answer: B
Q7. Which disease is characterized by circular lesions on the fruit with tan centers in tomato?
A. Black mold disease
B. Anthracnose disease
C. Late blight
D. Fusarium wilt
Answer: B
Q8. What is the optimum temperature range for tomato cultivation?
A. 10-15°C
B. 15-18°C
C. 21-24°C
D. 28-32°C
Answer: C
Q9. Which pre-emergence herbicide is used for weed control in tomato?
A. Paraquat
B. Glyphosate
C. Metribuzin
D. Atrazine
Answer: C
Q10. What is the average yield per hectare for hybrid tomato varieties?
A. 10-15 t/ha
B. 20-25 t/ha
C. 30-40 t/ha
D. 50-60 t/ha
Answer: D
This presentation covers major diseases of okra, focusing on their cause, etiology, symptoms, disease cycle, and management. Key diseases include Powdery Mildew, Fusarium Wilt, Alternaria Leaf Spot, and Yellow Vein Mosaic. Understanding the pathogens, epidemiology, and integrated management strategies is essential for effective disease control and sustainable okra production.
Introduction to Okra Diseases
Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) is affected by several fungal and viral diseases.
Spray systemic insecticides (cypermethrin, deltamethrin, triazophos) to control vectors.
Summary: Integrated Disease Management in Okra
Use disease-free, treated seeds and resistant varieties.
Practice crop rotation, field sanitation, and timely removal of infected plants.
Apply recommended fungicides and insecticides judiciously.
Adopt biological control agents where feasible.
Monitor fields regularly for early detection and management.
Objective Questions
Q1. Which causal organism is responsible for powdery mildew in okra?
A. Erysiphe cichoracearum
B. Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. vasinfectum
C. Alternaria alternata
D. Yellow Vein Mosaic Virus
Answer: A
Q2. What is the optimum temperature range for Fusarium wilt disease development in okra?
A. 15–20°C
B. 22–28°C
C. 30–35°C
D. 10–15°C
Answer: B
Q3. Which structure allows Fusarium oxysporum to survive in soil for long periods?
A. Cleistothecia
B. Chlamydospores
C. Conidiophores
D. Sclerotia
Answer: B
Q4. Which of the following is NOT a recommended management practice for yellow vein mosaic in okra?
A. Spraying systemic insecticides
B. Mixed cropping with pumpkin
C. Removal of wild hosts
D. Use of resistant cultivars
Answer: B
Q5. Which symptom is characteristic of Alternaria leaf spot in okra?
A. White powdery growth on leaves
B. Brown spots with concentric rings
C. Vein yellowing and thickening
D. Blackening of stem
Answer: B
Q6. Which fungicide is recommended for seed treatment against Alternaria leaf spot in okra?
A. Carbendazim
B. Mancozeb
C. Thiram
D. Wettable sulphur
Answer: C
Q7. What is the main vector for transmission of yellow vein mosaic virus in okra?
A. Aphid
B. Thrips
C. White fly
D. Leafhopper
Answer: C
Q8. Which of the following is a biological control agent used against powdery mildew in okra?
A. Bacillus subtilis
B. Thiram
C. Cypermethrin
D. Deltamethrin
Answer: A
Q9. Which symptom is NOT associated with Fusarium wilt in okra?
A. Yellowing and stunting
B. Dark brown vascular discoloration
C. Brown spots with yellow halo
D. Wilting and rolling of leaves
Answer: C
Q10. Which of the following is a resistant variety for Fusarium wilt in okra?
A. Punjab Padmini
B. CS-3232
C. Prabhani Kranti
D. Hissar Unnat
Answer: B
This presentation provides an overview of major diseases affecting tea (Camellia sinensis), focusing on their pathogens, symptoms, disease cycles, and management strategies. Emphasis is placed on integrated disease management, including cultural, chemical, and biological control methods, which are essential for sustainable tea production and plant health.
Introduction to Tea and Its Diseases
Botanical name: Camellia sinensis
Chromosome number: 2n = 30
Origin: China
Tea is susceptible to various fungal, algal, and oomycete diseases affecting yield and quality.
Effective disease management is crucial for sustainable tea cultivation.
Q1. What is the scientific name of tea?
A. Camellia sinensis
B. Camellia japonica
C. Thea assamica
D. Thea viridis
Answer: A
Q2. Which pathogen causes algal leaf spot in tea?
A. Exobasidium vexans
B. Cephaleuros virescens
C. Colletotrichum sp.
D. Marasmius crinisequi
Answer: B
Q3. What is a common management practice for brown blight in tea?
A. Spray Bordeaux mixture
B. Apply neem oil
C. Use sulfur dust
D. Flood irrigation
Answer: A
Q4. Which disease is characterized by black fungal threads resembling horse hair?
A. Blister blight
B. Horse hair blight
C. Camellia flower blight
D. Twig dieback
Answer: B
Q5. Which chemical fungicide was found effective against wood rot disease in tea?
A. Benomyl
B. Mancozeb
C. Carbendazim
D. Metalaxyl
Answer: A
Q6. What symptom is typical of blister blight in tea?
A. Black dots on leaves
B. Blister-like symptoms on young leaves
C. Star-like mycelium on roots
D. Yellowing of flower petals
Answer: B
Q7. Which organism is a good plant growth promoter and reduces sclerotial blight in tea?
A. Bacillus megaterium
B. Pseudomonas sp.
C. T. viride
D. A. niger
Answer: A
Q8. Which disease is caused by Phytophthora cinnamomi in tea?
A. Root rot
B. Brown blight
C. Black root rot
D. Camellia dieback
Answer: A
Q9. What is a recommended management for Poria root disease in tea?
A. Remove infected bushes and adjacent plants
B. Increase irrigation frequency
C. Apply potassium nitrate
D. Spray insecticides
Answer: A
Q10. Which fungicide is a promising triazole against blister blight of tea?
A. Hexaconazole
B. Copper oxychloride
C. Tridemorph
D. Benomyl
Answer: A
This presentation covers major fungal diseases affecting cabbage, detailing their pathogens, symptoms, disease cycles, and management strategies. Emphasis is placed on identification, prevention, and integrated management practices for effective disease control. Key concepts include pathogen identification, symptomatology, disease cycle, management strategies, and integrated disease management.
Introduction to Fungal Diseases of Cabbage
Cabbage is susceptible to several economically important fungal diseases.
Fungal pathogens affect yield and quality.
Early identification and management are crucial for disease control.
Integrated approaches are recommended for sustainable management.
Wirestem (Rhizoctonia solani)
Pathogen: Rhizoctonia solani.
Symptoms: Stem constriction at base, stunted growth, seedlings may break at ground level.
Favored by mechanical injury and wet conditions.
Management: Use certified disease-free transplants, avoid injury, ensure good drainage.
Fusarium Yellows (Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. conglutinans)