Tag: horticulture

• Tomato is susceptible to several insect pests causing significant yield loss.
• Major pests include fruit borer, leaf miner, whitefly, aphids, thrips, and red spider mite.
• Effective management requires correct identification and understanding of pest biology.

• Family: Noctuidae; Order: Lepidoptera

Economic Importance:

• Serious pest in tropical and subtropical regions.
• Damages tomato, tur, gram, and other crops.

Identification:

• Caterpillar: Varying color, radiating hairs, brown to greenish with dark lines.
• Moth: Medium-sized, light yellowish brown, forewings with dark spot, hindwings pale with black border.

• Eggs laid on tender plant parts.
• Larval stage lasts 18–25 days; pupates in soil.
• Total life cycle: 30–40 days.

Nature of Damage:

• Young larvae feed on foliage; older larvae bore into fruits.
• Circular holes in fruits; internal feeding leads to secondary infections.
• One larva can damage 2–8 fruits.

• Collect and destroy infested fruits and larvae.
• Deep ploughing after harvest to expose pupae.
• Intercrop with marigold (1:16 rows) to attract adults.

Biological:

• Release Trichogramma spp. and Chrysoperla carnea.
• Spray Bacillus thuringiensis (2g/lit) or HaNPV (250 LE/ha).

Chemical:

• Use pheromone traps (Helilure) at 12/ha.
• Spray recommended insecticides: Azadirachtin, Indoxacarb, Flubendiamide, Novaluron, Phosalone, Quinalphos.

• Family: Agromyzidae; Order: Diptera

Identification:

• Larva: Minute, orange-yellow, apodous maggots.
• Adult: Pale yellow, small fly.

Life Cycle:

• Eggs laid singly on upper leaf surface.
• Larval period: 7–10 days; pupates in soil or leaves.
• Total life cycle: ~3 weeks.

Damage:

• Larvae mine between leaf epidermis, causing serpentine trails.
• Severe cases cause leaf drying and drop.

• Collect and destroy mined leaves.
• Spray neem seed kernel extract (NSKE) 5%.
• Practice crop rotation and avoid overuse of insecticides to conserve natural enemies.

• Family: Gelechiidae; Order: Lepidoptera

Identification:

• Small, greyish-brown moth; larvae mine leaves, stems, and fruits.

Damage:

• Leaf mines, galleries in stems, and fruit damage.
• Can cause severe yield loss if unmanaged.

Management:

• Use pheromone traps for monitoring.
• Release natural enemies (Trichogramma spp.).
• Apply Bacillus thuringiensis or selective insecticides as needed.

• Family: Aleyrodidae; Order: Hemiptera

Identification:

• Eggs: Pear-shaped, light yellow.
• Nymphs: Oval, scale-like, greenish white.
• Adults: Tiny, white, scale-like.

Damage:

• Nymphs and adults suck sap, causing chlorosis and leaf curling.
• Vector of tomato leaf curl virus.

• Uproot and destroy infected plants.
• Remove alternate weed hosts (e.g., Abutilon indicum).
• Use yellow sticky traps (12/ha).
• Apply carbofuran 3% G @ 40 kg/ha or recommended insecticides: Dimethoate, Malathion, Oxydemeton-methyl, Thiamethoxam.

• Family: Aphididae; Order: Hemiptera

Identification:

• Small, soft-bodied insects, green or black.

Damage:

• Nymphs and adults suck sap, causing yellowing, deformation, and drying.
• Honeydew secretion leads to sooty mould, reducing photosynthesis.

Management:

• Seed treatment with imidacloprid or thiamethoxam.
• Use yellow sticky traps.
• Encourage natural predators (ladybird beetles, lacewings).

• Family: Thripidae; Order: Thysanoptera

Identification:

• Nymphs: Yellowish; Adults: Dark with fringed wings.

Damage:

• Silvery streaks on leaves, bud necrosis, flower drop.
• Vector of tomato spotted wilt virus.

Management:

• Uproot and destroy diseased plants.
• Use yellow sticky traps (15/ha).
• Release Chrysoperla carnea larvae (10,000/ha).
• Spray methyl demeton or dimethoate as needed.

• Family: Tetranychidae; Order: Acarina

Identification:

• Eggs: Hyaline, globular, laid in masses.
• Nymphs: Yellowish; Adults: Small, red.

Damage:

• Leaves turn reddish-brown, bronzed, and dry.
• Webbing on leaves; reduced flower and fruit set.

Management:

• Spray wettable sulphur 50 WP (2g/lit) or dicofol 18.5 EC (2.5 ml/lit).

• Combine cultural, biological, and chemical methods for effective pest control.
• Monitor pest populations regularly using traps and field scouting.
• Promote use of resistant varieties and natural enemies.
• Apply insecticides judiciously to avoid resistance and conserve beneficial insects.

• Citrus spp. belong to the family Rutaceae.
• Includes oranges, lemons, limes, pummelo, and grapefruit.
• Originated in tropical and subtropical Southeast Asia.
• Third most important fruit group in India after mango and banana.

• Acid group: Acid lime (C. aurantifolia), Lemon (C. limon), Citron (C. medica), etc.
• Orange group: Sweet orange (C. sinensis), Sour orange (C. aurantium).
• Mandarin group: C. reticulata, C. unshiu, C. deliciosa, Kinnow.
• Pummelo and grapefruit group: Pummelo (C. grandis), Grapefruit (C. paradisi), Kumquat (Fortunella sp.).
• Hybrids: Citrange, Tangelo, Citrangequat, used mainly as rootstocks.

• Best grown in subtropical climates, 500–1500 m MSL elevation.
• Optimal rainfall: 150–250 cm/year; mild winters preferred.
• Ideal soil: Medium/light loam, pH 5.5–6.5, well-drained.
• Acid lime prefers pH 6.5–7.0; sensitive to frost.

• Kodai Orange (C. reticulata): Vigorous, small, loose rind, heavy seeded.
• Nagpur Santra (C. reticulata): Leading commercial mandarin, fine texture, juicy, matures Jan–Feb.
• Coorg Mandarin (C. reticulata): Medium-large, bright orange, regular bearer.
• Satsuma Mandarin (C. unshiu): Japanese, seedless, thin rind, excellent quality.
• Kinnow (King × Willow leaf): Hybrid, high yield, export potential.
• Khasi Mandarin: North-East India, excellent quality, polyembryonic seeds.

• Seed propagation: Used for most mandarins; select true-to-type, healthy seeds.
• Vegetative propagation: T-budding on rootstocks like Rangpur lime, Cleopatra, Rough lemon, Troyer citrange.
• Budded plants bear earlier and are more uniform.
• Rootstocks selected for disease resistance and soil adaptability.

• Planting season: May–June and September–October (monsoon period).
• Spacing: 6 × 6 m for most mandarins; 5–6 m for acid lime.
• Pit size: 75 × 75 × 75 cm, filled with FYM, sand, and topsoil.
• High-density planting possible for Kinnow using Troyer citrange rootstock.

• Train trees to single stem with 4–6 main branches.
• Remove water shoots, rootstock sprouts, and laterals up to 45–50 cm height.
• Prune bearing trees after harvest to remove dead, diseased, and weak branches.
• Root pruning sometimes used for crop regulation.

• Mandarins may flower 1–3 times/year (Ambe, Mrig, Hast Bahar).
• Bahar treatment: Expose roots and withhold water to induce rest and synchronized flowering.
• Not recommended for light soils or North India.

• Apply FYM and NPK fertilizers in two splits (June and October).
• Micronutrients: Zn, Mn, Fe, Mg, B, Mo required; avoid excess Na and Cl.
• Apply lime/dolomite in acidic soils once every 2–3 years.
• Foliar sprays of micronutrients during new flushes improve growth.

• Young plants require regular irrigation, especially during dry spells.
• Mandarins: Water at 10–15 day intervals in winter, 5–7 days in summer.
• Avoid waterlogging; citrus is sensitive to excess moisture.
• Water should be free from salts.

• Weeds compete for nutrients and water, especially in young orchards.
• Pre-emergence herbicides: Diuron (5 kg/ha), Terbacil (4.5 kg/ha).
• Post-emergence: Atrazine (5–6 kg/ha), Glyphosate (5 L/ha).
• Intercropping with legumes (pea, cowpea, blackgram) is beneficial during pre-bearing years.

• 2,4-D (20 ppm) or NAA (30 ppm) sprayed at flowering and marble stage increases fruit retention.
• Improves fruit set and reduces premature fruit drop.

• Budded plants bear in 3–5 years; seedlings in 5–7 years.
• Yield: 15–20 t/ha/year; 1000–1500 fruits/tree/year at full bearing.
• Harvest when fruits are full-sized, colored, and have optimal sugar-acid blend.
• Use clippers or secateurs to avoid skin damage.

• Grade fruits by size and appearance; pack in wooden boxes or CFB cartons.
• Store at 8–10°C, 85–90% RH for best shelf life.
• HDPE/poly bags with ventilation extend storage life of Kinnow and Nagpur Santra.
• Waxing and neem leaf extract reduce post-harvest losses.

• Citrus requires careful varietal selection, proper soil, and climate management.
• Judicious nutrient and water management are essential for high yield and quality.
• Integrated weed, pest, and disease management improve orchard health.
• Proper post-harvest handling ensures better market returns.

• Mango (Mangifera indica) is known as the ‘king of fruits’ in India.
• India accounts for about 56% of global mango production.
• Major producing states: Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka, Maharashtra, West Bengal, Gujarat.
• Mango contributes nearly 39.5% of India’s total fruit production.

• Grows in alluvial to lateritic soils; avoid poorly drained black cotton soils.
• Prefers slightly acidic soils (pH 5.5–7.5); poor growth above pH 7.5.
• Good drainage is essential for healthy growth.

Climate:

• Tropical to subtropical; can be grown up to 1,100 m above sea level.
• Optimal temperature: 24–27°C; higher temperatures improve fruit quality.
• Requires 25–250 cm annual rainfall; avoid high humidity and frost during flowering.

• Over 1,000 varieties exist; about 20 are commercially important.
• Popular varieties: Alphonso, Banganapalli, Bombay Green, Chausa, Dashehari, Fazli, Gulab Khas, Himsagar, Kesar, Kishenbhog, Langra, Mankurad, Neelum, Pairi, Totapuri.
• Varietal preference varies by state and region.
• North Indian varieties often alternate-bearers; South Indian varieties are generally regular-bearers.

• Mango is highly heterozygous and cross-pollinated.
• Polyembryonic varieties (mainly in South India) can be grown from seed; monoembryonic (North India) require vegetative propagation.
• Common propagation methods: inarching, veneer grafting, side grafting, epicotyl/stone grafting.
• Rootstock seedlings are raised from fresh seeds (sown within 4–5 weeks of extraction).

• Planting systems: square, rectangular, and hexagonal; square and rectangular are most common.
• Spacing depends on variety vigor and cropping system; typically 10–12 m for traditional planting.
• Pits of 1 m × 1 m × 1 m are prepared and filled with well-rotted farmyard manure.
• Planting is best done during the rainy season (June–September).

• High-density planting increases yield per unit area.
• Amrapali is suitable for high-density planting (2.5 m × 2.5 m spacing).
• Paclobutrazol (2 ml/tree) induces flowering in off-years.
• Pruning and use of dwarfing rootstocks (e.g., Vellaikolumban) help manage tree size.

• Training is essential in early years to develop a strong framework.
• Proper branch spacing facilitates intercultural operations.
• Pruning is minimal; mainly removal of diseased, dead, or crossing branches.

• Apply 73 g N, 18 g P2O5, 68 g K2O per year of age (up to 10 years).
• After 10 years: 730 g N, 180 g P2O5, 680 g K2O per tree/year in two split doses (June–July, Sept–Oct).
• Correct micronutrient deficiencies with foliar sprays: 0.3% zinc sulphate, 0.5% borax, 0.5% manganese sulphate.

Irrigation:

• Young plants (up to 2 years) require regular watering (about 30 L/week).
• Irrigation during pre-flowering and fruit set increases yield.
• Established trees: irrigate at 10-day intervals after fruit set.

• Intercropping reduces weed growth and nutrient loss.
• Suitable intercrops: blackgram, wheat, brinjal, onion.
• Cover crops like sunhemp, cowpea, and pea help prevent soil erosion.

• Harvest mangoes with pedicel to reduce injury and fungal infection.
• Average yield: 8 tonnes/ha; 1,000–2,000 fruits/tree during bearing age.
• Sort and grade fruits by size; use proper packaging (perforated cardboard boxes preferred).
• Store mature green mangoes at 5–16°C; avoid chilling injury.
• Postharvest treatments: waxing, hot-water treatment, individual wrapping, hydro-cooling extend shelf life.

• Mango thrives in well-drained, slightly acidic soils and warm, humid climates.
• Choose suitable varieties and hybrids for region and market demand.
• Adopt high-density planting and proper nutrient management for higher productivity.
• Intercropping and postharvest care improve sustainability and fruit quality.

• Fruits are classified based on their temperature and climatic requirements.
• Main categories: temperate, subtropical, and tropical fruits.
• Some fruits can adapt to more than one climatic zone (e.g., mango, grape).
• Agroclimatic zones help determine suitable crops and cultivars for each region.

• Vegetative and flower buds enter dormancy in late summer or autumn.
• Require substantial winter chilling for bud break and growth.
• Frost-hardy; tolerant to snowfall and ice.
• Soils are usually shallow, acidic, and rainfall is adequate.
• Found at high elevations in India (e.g., Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh).

• Intermediate temperatures; brief chilling periods may occur.
• Fruits have no distinct rest period; light frost possible.
• Rainfall varies from low to high; soils are generally neutral and sandy loam/alluvial.
• Soil fertility is often low; photoperiodic requirement is not marked.
• Regions: Punjab, Haryana, parts of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Assam.

• Chilling temperatures are absent; high temperatures prevail year-round.
• Narrow day-night temperature variation; insignificant photoperiodic requirement.
• Rainfall and soil types vary widely (clay loam, alluvial, saline, sandy, laterite).
• Major fruit crops: mango, banana, papaya, guava.
• Regions: Central, Southern, and Coastal India.

• Low and erratic rainfall (100–500 mm annually); high evapotranspiration.
• High solar radiation and wind velocity; soils are sandy with low organic matter.
• Poor water holding capacity and saline groundwater in many areas.
• Major regions: Rajasthan, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Ladakh (cold arid).

• ICAR recognizes eight major agroclimatic zones for land use planning.
• Zones include: Western/Eastern Himalayas, Bengal-Assam, Sutlej-Ganga Plains, Eastern/Southern Islands, Arid Western Plains, Semi-arid Plateaus, Western Ghats.
• Each zone is characterized by unique climate, soil, and crop suitability.

• Fifteen broad agroclimatic zones based on physiography and climate.
• Examples: Western/Eastern Himalayan, Gangetic Plains, Plateau and Hills, Coastal Plains, Western Dry Region, Island Region.
• Used for effective agricultural planning and resource allocation.

• India divided into 21 agroecological regions based on physiography, soils, bioclimate, and growing period (GP).
• Growing period: Arid (<90 days), Semi-arid (90–150 days), Subarid (150–210 days), Humid (>210 days).
• Supports precise crop and land use planning.

• Tamil Nadu has seven climatic zones based on rainfall, altitude, and irrigation sources.
• Zones: North-eastern, North-western, Western, Cauvery Delta, Southern, High Rainfall, Hilly.
• Each zone has distinct rainfall patterns, soil types, and major crops.

• Tomato is affected by several major insect pests causing significant yield loss.
• Pests attack various plant parts: leaves, stems, flowers, and fruits.
• Effective management requires understanding pest biology and damage symptoms.

• Family: Noctuidae; Order: Lepidoptera

Economic Importance:

• Serious pest in tropical and subtropical regions.
• Also attacks other crops like pigeon pea and chickpea.

Identification:

• Caterpillar: Variable color, radiating hairs, greenish with dark lines.
• Moth: Medium-sized, light brown, forewings with dark spot, smoky hindwings.

• Eggs laid on tender plant parts.
• Larval stage lasts 18–25 days; pupates in soil.
• Complete life cycle: 30–40 days.

Nature of Damage:

• Young larvae feed on foliage; older larvae bore into fruits.
• Bore circular holes, feed inside fruits, causing secondary infections.
• One larva can damage multiple fruits.

• Collect and destroy infested fruits and larvae.
• Deep ploughing after harvest to expose pupae.
• Intercrop with marigold (1:16 ratio) to attract egg-laying adults.

Biological Control:

• Release Trichogramma spp. and Chrysoperla carnea.
• Spray Bacillus thuringiensis or HaNPV.

Chemical Control:

• Use pheromone traps (Helilure) at 12/ha.
• Apply insecticides: Azadirachtin, Indoxacarb, Flubendiamide, Novaluron, Phosalone, Quinalphos as per recommended doses.

• Family: Agromyzidae; Order: Diptera

Identification:

• Larva: Minute, orange-yellow, apodous maggots.
• Adult: Pale yellow, small fly.

Life Cycle:

• Eggs laid singly on upper leaf surface.
• Larval period: 7–10 days; pupation in soil or leaves.
• Total life cycle: ~3 weeks.

Nature of Damage:

• Larvae mine between leaf epidermis, creating serpentine trails.
• Severe infestation leads to leaf drying and drop.

Management:

• Remove and destroy mined leaves.
• Spray neem seed kernel extract (NSKE) 5%.

• Family: Gelechiidae; Order: Lepidoptera

Nature of Damage:

• Larvae mine leaves, stems, and fruits, causing blotches and galleries.
• Leads to fruit damage and yield loss.

Management:

• Use pheromone traps for monitoring and mass trapping.
• Release natural enemies (Trichogramma spp.).
• Apply Bacillus thuringiensis or selective insecticides as needed.

• Family: Aleyrodidae; Order: Hemiptera

Identification:

• Egg: Pear-shaped, light yellow.
• Nymph: Oval, scale-like, greenish-white.
• Adult: Tiny, white, scale-like.

Nature of Damage:

• Nymphs and adults suck sap, causing chlorosis and leaf curling.
• Vector of tomato leaf curl virus.

Management:

• Remove and destroy infected plants and weeds.
• Use yellow sticky traps (12/ha).
• Apply carbofuran or recommended insecticides: Dimethoate, Malathion, Oxydemeton-methyl, Thiamethoxam.

• Family: Aphididae; Order: Hemiptera

Nature of Damage:

• Nymphs and adults suck sap, causing yellowing and deformation.
• Honeydew secretion leads to sooty mould growth, reducing photosynthesis.

Management:

• Seed treatment with imidacloprid or thiamethoxam.
• Use yellow sticky traps.

• Family: Thripidae; Order: Thysanoptera

Identification:

• Nymphs: Yellowish; Adults: Dark with fringed wings.

Nature of Damage:

• Silvery streaks on leaves, bud necrosis, flower drop.
• Vector of tomato spotted wilt virus.

Management:

• Uproot and destroy diseased plants.
• Use yellow sticky traps (15/ha).
• Release Chrysoperla carnea larvae.
• Spray methyl demeton or dimethoate as per recommendations.

• Family: Tetranychidae; Order: Acarina

Identification:

• Eggs: Hyaline, globular, laid in masses.
• Nymphs: Yellowish; Adults: Small, red.

Nature of Damage:

• Leaves turn reddish-brown, bronzed, and dry.
• Webbing on leaves; affects flower and fruit formation.

Management:

• Spray wettable sulphur (50 WP, 2g/lit) or dicofol (18.5 EC, 2.5 ml/lit).

• Combine cultural, biological, and chemical methods for effective pest control.
• Monitor fields regularly for early pest detection.
• Use resistant varieties and crop rotation.
• Promote natural enemies and minimize pesticide use.

• Botanical name: Solanum lycopersicum
• Family: Solanaceae
• Chromosome number: 2n=24
• Origin: Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia; domesticated in Mexico
• Edible part: Whole fruit (fleshy berry)
• Pollination: Mainly self-pollinated, hermaphrodite flowers

• First recorded in 1554, South America
• Spread from Mexico to Europe and Asia
• Introduced to India in 1828 by British
• Probable ancestor: Solanum lycopersicum var. cerasiformae (cherry tomato)
• Father of tomato research: Dr. C. M. Rick

• Global area: ~5.16 million ha; production: ~186 million tonnes (2023)
• Top producers: China, India, Turkey, USA, Egypt
• India: 0.88 million ha; 21 million tonnes; productivity: 23.8 t/ha
• Major Indian states: Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Gujarat
• Export hubs: Pune, Bangalore, Nasik, Amaravati

• Second most important vegetable globally after potato
• Rich in ascorbic acid (31 mg/100g), lycopene, carotenoids
• Used fresh and processed (soup, sauce, ketchup, puree, paste)
• Health benefits: antioxidant, anticancer, digestive aid
• Tomato seed oil content: ~24%

• Annual herb with tap root system (depth >50 cm)
• Stem: erect, solid, hairy, glandular; height 2–4 m
• Leaves: compound, pinnatifid, irregularly toothed
• Flowers: small, yellow, borne in raceme cymes
• Fruit: fleshy berry, 2–15 cm diameter, color varies (green, yellow, red)
• Seeds: numerous, kidney-shaped, hairy

• By growth habit: Determinate (bushy, self-topping, early), Indeterminate (erect, late, needs staking)
• By fruit shape: Round, cherry, pear, oblate, etc.
• By subgenus (Muller, 1940): Eulycopersicon (red, self-compatible), Eriolycopersicon (green, wild, self-incompatible)

• Selection criteria: yield, disease resistance, fruit quality, shelf life
• IARI: Pusa Rohini, Pusa Ruby, Pusa Sadabahar, Pusa Uphar
• IIHR: Arka Vikas, Arka Abha, Arka Rakshak (disease resistant)
• IIVR: Kashi Amrit, Kashi Hemant, Kashi Aman (ToLCV resistant)
• Hybrids: Pusa Hybrid 1, Arka Vardan, Arka Meghali
• Processing: Punjab Chhuhara, Roma, Pusa Gaurav
• Protected cultivation: Indeterminate types (e.g., Pusa Ruby, Arka Abha)

• Warm season, day-neutral crop
• Optimum temperature: 20–24°C (growth), 15–20°C (fruit set)
• Red color (lycopene) best at 21–24°C; reduced above 27°C
• Soil: well-drained sandy loam to clay loam, pH 6.0–7.0
• Moderately tolerant to acid soils (pH 5.5)

• Raised beds (15 cm), 3 m x 1 m, sandy loam with organic matter
• Seed rate: OPV 400–500 g/ha; Hybrid 125–175 g/ha
• Seed treatment: Captan/Thiram 2 g/kg
• Bed drenching: Captan or copper oxychloride
• Harden seedlings by reducing water before transplanting
• Transplant 25–30 day old seedlings with 5–6 true leaves

• Resistance to soil-borne diseases and pests
• Tolerance to abiotic stresses (drought, salinity, temperature)
• Increased yield and fruit quality

Examples:

• Brimato: Tomato scion on brinjal rootstock (bacterial wilt resistance)
• Pomato: Tomato scion on potato rootstock (dual harvest)

• Deep ploughing (20–30 cm), followed by harrowing for fine tilth
• Soil solarization (optional) for pest and disease control
• Spacing: Determinate 60 x 45 cm; Indeterminate 90 x 60 cm
• Transplanting: Kharif (July), Rabi (Oct–Nov), Summer (Feb–March)

• FYM: 350 q/ha; N:P:K for OPV: 120:80:100 kg/ha; Hybrid: 200:100:120 kg/ha
• Apply ½ N and all P, K, FYM at planting; rest N as top dressing
• Mulching (25 micron) increases yield by 45–50%
• Drip irrigation saves water (up to 42%) and increases yield (up to 60%)
• Water requirement: 60 L/kg (open field), 4–22 L/kg (greenhouse)

• Weeding: 2 hand hoeings + earthing up
• Pre-emergence herbicides: metribuzin, fluchloralin, pendimethalin
• Staking: improves yield and fruit quality in indeterminate types
• Training: single, two, or three stem systems
• Pruning: remove lateral suckers, maintain 2 stems, every 8–10 days

• Harvest at breaker or half-red stage; first harvest at 70–85 days after transplanting
• Grading by color, size, maturity (Super A, Super, Fancy, Commercial)
• Storage: 12–15°C, 85–90% RH; mature green: up to 30 days, ripe: 10 days
• Yield: OPV 200–350 q/ha; Hybrid 600–750 q/ha

• Causes: irregular irrigation, moisture stress, boron deficiency
• Control: regular irrigation, borax spray, resistant varieties

Blossom End Rot

• Caused by calcium deficiency
• Control: spray CaCl₂ 0.5%, balanced irrigation

Puffiness

• Causes: poor fertilization, high N, high temp
• Control: 4-CPA/CPPU spray, balanced nutrition

Sun Scald

• Due to fruit exposure; avoid excessive pruning in summer

Blotchy Ripening, Cat Face, Golden Flakes

• Due to nutrient imbalance, abnormal growth conditions

• Yellow sticky traps, Chrysoperla release, methyl demeton/dimethoate spray

Whitefly (Bemisia tabaci)

• Remove infected plants, sticky traps, carbofuran, dimethoate/malathion spray

Leaf Miner (Liriomyza trifolii)

• Destroy mined leaves, NSKE 5% spray

Pinworm (Tuta absoluta)

• Pheromone traps, healthy seedlings, neem/Flubendiamide/Indoxacarb spray

Fruit Borer (Helicoverpa armigera)

• Trap crops, pheromone traps, Trichogramma release, Bt spray

• Raised beds, seed treatment (Trichoderma/Thiram), copper oxychloride drench

Early Blight (Alternaria solani)

• Remove debris, crop rotation, Mancozeb spray

Late Blight (Phytophthora infestans)

• Remove infected plants, crop rotation, copper oxychloride/Bordeaux mixture

Fusarium Wilt (Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. lycopersici)

• Remove infected plants, Carbendazim drench, crop rotation

Bacterial Wilt (Ralstonia solanacearum)

• Crop rotation, resistant varieties (Arka Abha, Arka Rakshak)

Mosaic (TMV)

• Disease-free seed, crop rotation, trisodium phosphate seed soak, vector control

Leaf Curl (ToLCV)

• Sticky traps, barrier crops, Imidacloprid/Dimethoate spray

• Use high-yielding, disease-resistant varieties and hybrids
• Adopt proper nursery, land, and nutrient management
• Implement grafting and protected cultivation for stress-prone areas
• Practice regular irrigation, mulching, and weed control
• Monitor and manage pests and diseases using IPM
• Harvest and store fruits at optimal maturity and conditions

• Scientific name: Solanum lycopersicum
• Family: Solanaceae
• Originated in western South America; domesticated in Central America
• Chromosome number: 2n = 24 (corrected; not 26)
• India ranks 2nd globally in tomato production

• Botanically, tomato fruit is classified as a berry
• Rich in vitamins A, C, K and antioxidants like lycopene and lutein
• Consumption helps reduce risk of cancer, supports eye health, and regulates blood pressure

• Top producers: China, India, USA, Turkey, Egypt
• In India: Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat, Odisha, West Bengal, Chhattisgarh, Bihar, Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh

• Tomato is propagated by seeds or vegetative methods
• Vegetative propagation uses plant cuttings for true-to-type plants
• Seed propagation is most common in commercial cultivation

• Warm season crop; optimal temperature: 21–24°C
• Cannot tolerate frost or high humidity
• Prefers deep, well-drained sandy loam soils (15–20 cm depth)
• Requires low to moderate rainfall (approx. 194 mm during growing season)

• Land should be well-prepared, ridged, and free of weeds
• Seed sowing: June–July (autumn-winter), November (spring-summer), March–April (hills)
• Transplant seedlings at 75–90 x 45–60 cm spacing
• Use healthy seedlings (10–12 inches tall)

• Types: Cherry, Grape, Roma, Beefsteak, Heirloom, Tomatoes on the vine, Green tomatoes
• Popular varieties: Rashmi, Pusa Early Dwarf, Rupali, Sioux, Vaishali, Abhinav, Avishkar

• Requires 1–2 inches of water per week
• Drip irrigation preferred for transplanted tomatoes
• Sprinkler irrigation for direct-seeded crops (early stages)
• Furrow irrigation used after establishment

• Apply 20–25 t/ha well-rotted FYM/compost during land preparation
• Recommended fertilizer dose: 75:40:25 kg N:P2O5:K2O per ha
• Apply half N, full P, and half K as basal; remaining N and K as top dressing

• Practices: crop rotation, cultivation, sanitation, proper field preparation
• Pre-emergence herbicide: Metribuzin
• Post-emergence herbicide: Paraquat

• Circular lesions on fruit; centers turn tan; black spots on fruit

Management:

• Avoid sprinkler irrigation during fruit ripening
• Crop rotation with non-solanaceous crops

Black Mold Disease
Pathogen: Alternaria spp.
Symptoms:

• Black or brown lesions on ripe fruit surface

Management:

• Avoid wetting foliage; use fungicides if necessary

Colorado Potato Beetle
Nature: Insect pest
Symptoms:

• Feeding damage to foliage; black and yellow striped beetle visible

Management:

• Handpick adults and larvae; destroy in soapy water
• Use Bacillus thuringiensis for larvae control

Aphids
Nature: Insect pest
Symptoms:

• Yellowing and distortion of leaves

Management:

• Use tolerant varieties; apply neem oil

• First harvest: 60–70 days after transplanting (variety dependent)
• Harvest by twisting fruit by hand or mechanically
• Average yield: 20–25 t/ha; hybrids: up to 50–60 t/ha

• Store mature (yellow) tomatoes at 12–16°C (55–60°F)
• Cold storage life: 3–4 weeks
• Do not store below 4°C (40°F) to avoid chilling injury

• Tomato is a widely grown vegetable crop worldwide.
• Botanical name: Solanum lycopersicum; Family: Solanaceae; Chromosome number: 2n=24.
• Originated in the Andean region (Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia); domesticated in Mexico.
• Introduced to India by the British in 1828.

• Annual herb with a tap root system (up to 50 cm deep).
• Stem: Erect, solid, hairy, glandular; height 2–4 m.
• Leaves: Compound, pinnatifid, irregularly toothed margins.
• Flowers: Small, yellow, borne in racemes; perfect and hypogynous.
• Fruit: Fleshy berry, globular to oblate, 2–15 cm diameter; color varies from green to red/yellow/orange.
• Seeds: Numerous, kidney-shaped, hairy, light brown.

• Determinate: Bushy, self-topping, early maturity, staking not required.
• Indeterminate: Erect, continuous growth, late maturity, staking required.

Botanical Classification (Bailey, 1949):

• L. esculentum var. commune – Common round fruited
• L. esculentum var. grandifolium – Potato-leaved
• L. esculentum var. cerasiformae – Cherry tomato
• L. esculentum var. validum – Upright tomato
• L. esculentum var. pyriformae – Pear-shaped tomato

• Rich in vitamins (A, B, C), minerals (iron, phosphorus, calcium), amino acids, sugars, and dietary fiber.
• Ascorbic acid: 16–65 mg/100g; total sugars: ~2.5% in ripe fruit.
• Used fresh, in salads, pickles, preserves, and processed products (puree, paste, ketchup, sauce, juice).
• Contains lycopene (red pigment), carotenoids (yellow), and tomatine (alkaloid).

• India: ~8.8 lakh ha, 182 lakh tonnes, productivity ~20.7 t/ha.
• Leading states: Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Gujarat.
• Major export areas: Pune, Bangalore, Nasik, Amaravati.
• Main importers: Pakistan, UAE, Bangladesh, Nepal, Oman.

• High yield, disease resistance, fruit quality, shelf life, and TSS.

Popular Varieties:

• Pusa Ruby, Arka Vikas, Arka Meghali, Arka Saurabh, Arka Abha, Pusa Early Dwarf, PKM-1, Hisar Anmol, Pant Bahar.

Hybrids:

• Arka Rakshak, Arka Samrat, Arka Shreshta, Pusa Divya, Rashmi, Rupali, IAHS-88.2.

Special Traits:

• Resistant to ToLCV: Nandi, Sankranti, Vaibhav, Arka Rakshak.
• Resistant to bacterial wilt: Arka Alok, Arka Abha, Arka Shreshta.

• Warm season crop; optimum temperature: 20–24°C.
• Fruit set best at 15–20°C; lycopene synthesis optimal at 21–24°C.
• Grows in all soils; sandy loam preferred for early crop, heavy soils for high yield.
• Soil pH: 6.0–7.0; moderately tolerant to acidic soils (pH 5.5).

• Seed rate: OPV 300–400 g/ha; Hybrids 125–175 g/ha.
• Seed treatment: Captan/Thiram @ 2 g/kg seed.
• Nursery: Raised beds, protected with shade net, use sterilized cocopeat in protrays.
• Seedlings ready in 25–30 days; hardened before transplanting.
• Transplanting at 4–5 weeks; spacing: 60 × 45 cm.

• Apply FYM @ 25 t/ha and neem cake @ 100 kg/ha before last ploughing.
• Raised beds (120 cm width) for better drainage.
• Mulching (plastic or organic) conserves moisture, controls weeds, and regulates soil temperature.
• Plastic mulch (25 micron) can increase yield by 45–50%.

• Total water requirement: 600–700 mm/ha.
• Drip irrigation is efficient, saves water (up to 42%), and increases yield (up to 60%).
• Frequent irrigation essential, especially during flowering and fruiting.
• Balanced fertilization with NPK and micronutrients is crucial.

• Weeding: Two hand hoeings and earthing up recommended.
• Pre-emergence herbicides: Metribuzin (0.35 kg/ha), Pendimethalin (1.0 kg/ha).
• Staking and training improve fruit quality and reduce disease incidence (especially for indeterminate types).
• Pruning and desuckering maintain balance between vegetative growth and fruiting.

• Ethephon (200–500 mg/L): Flower induction, rooting.
• 2,4-D (2–5 mg/L): Increases fruit set, induces parthenocarpy.
• GA3 (50–100 mg/L): Promotes shoot elongation and yield.
• PCPA (50 mg/L): Enhances fruit set under adverse conditions.

• First harvest: 60–85 days after transplanting, depending on variety.
• Harvest stages: Immature green, mature green, breaker, pink, hard ripe, overripe.
• Grading based on color, size, and maturity; BIS grades: Super A, Super, Fancy, Commercial.
• Storage: 12–15°C, 85–90% RH; mature green fruits can be stored up to 30 days.

• Open field: 50 t/ha; Greenhouse: up to 150 t/ha (Singh et al., 2013).
• Yield depends on variety, management, and environmental conditions.

• Brown, sunken lesions at blossom end; due to calcium deficiency and irregular watering.

Fruit Cracking

• Radial/concentric cracks; caused by irregular irrigation, boron deficiency, genetic factors.

Sun Scald

• Blistered, water-soaked areas on exposed fruits; aggravated by defoliation and pruning.

Puffiness

• Partially filled, light fruits; due to poor fertilization, high temperature, or moisture.

Cat Face

• Distorted blossom end with ridges and furrows; linked to low temperature during flowering.

• Regular irrigation and balanced fertilization (especially calcium and boron).
• Avoid excessive pruning and staking during hot periods.
• Grow resistant/tolerant varieties for specific disorders.
• Apply foliar sprays: CaCl2 (0.5%), borax (0.3–0.4%) as needed.

• Use yellow sticky traps, pheromone traps, and biological control (Chrysoperla, Trichogramma).
• Spray recommended insecticides (e.g., dimethoate, malathion, neem formulations) as per guidelines.
• Practice crop rotation and destruction of infested plant parts.

• Use raised beds, seed treatment with Trichoderma/Thiram, drench with copper oxychloride.

Early Blight (Alternaria solani)

• Remove debris, crop rotation, spray Mancozeb 0.2%.

Late Blight (Phytophthora infestans)

• Remove affected plants, crop rotation, drench with copper oxychloride/Bordeaux mixture.

Fusarium Wilt (Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. lycopersici)

• Remove affected plants, spot drench with carbendazim, rotate with non-host crops.

Bacterial Wilt (Ralstonia solanacearum)

• Use resistant varieties, crop rotation with non-hosts.

Mosaic (TMV), Leaf Curl (ToLCV)

• Use disease-free seed, vector control (imidacloprid, dimethoate), crop rotation.

• Use resistant varieties and healthy seedlings.
• Practice crop rotation and field sanitation.
• Monitor pests/diseases regularly; use traps and biocontrol agents.
• Apply chemicals judiciously, following recommended doses and intervals.

• Tomato is a high-value crop with diverse uses and nutritional benefits.
• Proper variety selection, climate, soil, and cultural practices are key for high yield.
• Integrated management of pests, diseases, and physiological disorders ensures quality production.
• Knowledge of post-harvest handling and storage extends shelf life and marketability.

• Apple (Malus domestica) is the most widely grown temperate fruit globally.
• Native to southwest Asia; major production in India, China, USA, and Europe.
• India’s leading apple-producing states: Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Uttarakhand.
• High nutritional value: rich in vitamins, minerals, and dietary fiber.

• Post-harvest losses in apple can reach 20–30% due to improper handling.
• Proper management maintains fruit quality and extends shelf life.
• Reduces economic losses and increases farmer income.
• Essential for meeting export and domestic market standards.

• Harvest at optimum maturity for best flavor and storage life.
• Indicators: fruit color, firmness, seed color, and days from full bloom.
• Harvest carefully to avoid bruising and mechanical injury.
• Use clean, sharp tools and handle fruits gently.

• Precooling removes field heat, slowing down respiration and decay.
• Hydrocooling or forced-air cooling are common methods.
• Sorting removes damaged, diseased, or undersized fruits.
• Improves uniformity and market value.

• Grading based on size, color, and quality standards.
• Standard grades: Extra Fancy, Fancy, Commercial, Culls.
• Packing in ventilated cartons, trays, or mesh bags to prevent damage.
• Use of cushioning materials to reduce bruising during transport.

• Optimal storage: 0–4°C (32–39°F) and 85–95% relative humidity.
• Controlled Atmosphere (CA) storage extends shelf life up to 6–12 months.
• Regular cold storage suitable for short- to medium-term storage.
• Monitor for disorders: scald, core flush, and fungal decay.

• Transport in refrigerated or well-ventilated vehicles to maintain quality.
• Avoid rough handling to minimize mechanical injuries.
• Timely marketing ensures better prices and reduces spoilage.

• Processing into products: juice, cider, jam, jelly, dried slices, vinegar.
• Value addition increases shelf life and market opportunities.
• By-products: apple pomace used for animal feed or pectin extraction.
• Promotes rural employment and entrepreneurship.

• Adopt scientific harvesting, handling, and storage methods.
• Implement grading and packaging standards for quality assurance.
• Promote value addition to reduce losses and increase profitability.
• Continuous training and awareness for growers and handlers.

• Apple is susceptible to various fungal, bacterial, and physiological diseases.
• Major diseases impact yield, fruit quality, and tree longevity.
• Effective management requires understanding pathogen biology and disease cycles.
• Integrated approaches combine cultural, chemical, and genetic methods.

• Caused by Venturia inaequalis (fungus).
• First reported in Sweden (1819); in India, Kashmir valley (1935).
• Most economically important apple disease worldwide.

• Black, circular, velvety spots on upper leaf surface; may coalesce.
• Leaves become twisted, yellow, and may drop prematurely.
• Fruits develop sooty, gray-black lesions, later sunken and tan.
• Infected fruits may crack and become deformed; young fruits may drop.

• Primary inoculum: ascospores from fallen leaves in spring.
• Ascospores dispersed by wind and rain during wet periods.
• Secondary spread: conidia dispersed by wind and rain.

• Sanitation: remove and destroy fallen leaves.
• Use resistant varieties: Emira, Redfree, Ambstraking, Ambroyal, Ambrich, Ambred.
• Fungicide sprays: captan (0.2%), dodine (0.25%) after petal fall.
• Apply difolatan (0.3%) at green bud stage, followed by captan at petal fall.

• Caused by Podosphaera leucotricha (fungus).
• White or grey powdery patches on young leaves, shoots, and fruits.
• Leaves become narrow, curled; twigs covered with powdery mass.
• Fruits remain small, deformed, with roughened surface.

• Overwinters as mycelium in buds; spreads by wind-borne conidia.
• Sanitation: remove infected shoots and plant debris.
• Pre-bloom spray: lime sulphur (1:60); fungicides: dinocap (0.05%).
• Resistant varieties: Maharaja Chunth, Golden Chinese, Yantarka Altaskya, Dolgoe.

• Caused by Erwinia amylovora (bacterium).
• Affects blossoms, shoots, branches, fruits, and rootstock.
• Blossoms become water-soaked, turn brown/black, shrivel.
• Shoots wilt, forming “shepherd’s crook”; leaves blacken along veins.
• Milky, sticky ooze may appear on infected tissues.

• Bacteria overwinter in cankers and woody tissue.
• Spread by insects (bees, flies, ants) and rain splash.
• Prune and destroy infected parts 30 cm below visible symptoms.
• Disinfect tools with 10% sodium hypochlorite after each cut.
• Dormant sprays: copper sulphate or Bordeaux mixture; streptomycin for blossom protection.

• Caused by Agrobacterium tumefaciens (bacterium).
• Galls form on roots and stems near soil line; initially white/flesh-colored, later hard and corky.
• Plants become stunted with chlorotic leaves.

• Use disease-free planting material; avoid wounding roots and stems.
• Crop rotation with cereals or maize.
• Biological control: Agrobacterium radiobacter strain K1026 applied to wounds.
• Penicillin or vancomycin offers partial control.

• Combine cultural, chemical, and genetic resistance strategies.
• Regular monitoring and early detection are essential.
• Sanitation and removal of infected material reduce inoculum.
• Use of resistant varieties minimizes chemical dependence.