Tag: horticulture

• Belongs to family Pyralidae, order Lepidoptera; serious pest of brinjal.
• Adult moth is medium-sized with whitish forewings marked by black and brown patches; caterpillar is small and light pink.
• Eggs (up to 250) are laid singly on leaves, shoots, flower buds, or fruits; larval period lasts 12–15 days in summer, 22 days in winter.
• Larvae bore into shoots and fruits, causing withering, drying, and fruit damage (up to 21% loss); infested fruits show circular holes plugged with excreta.
• Management includes removal of infested plant parts, use of larval parasitoids (Microbracon greeni), pheromone traps (5/ha), and insecticidal sprays (carbaryl, profenofos, cypermethrin).

• Member of family Coccinellidae, order Coleoptera; also known as spotted leaf beetle or hadda beetle.
• Adults are small, round to oblong, brick red or pinkish with 12–28 black dots; grubs are yellowish, spiny, and broad at the front.
• Eggs laid on leaf undersides; larval period 10–35 days, pupal period 3–6 days; total life cycle 17–50 days.
• Both grubs and adults feed on leaf chlorophyll, creating skeletonized patches and reducing photosynthetic area.
• Control by hand-picking, destruction of egg masses, use of parasitoids (Tetrastichus ovularum, Uga menoni), and foliar insecticides (DDVP, carbaryl, profenofos, quinalphos).

• Family Cicadellidae, order Hemiptera; small, light brown adults.
• Feeds on plant sap, causing leaf size reduction, shortened petioles, bushy growth, and stunted plants.
• Can induce ‘little leaf’ disease, leading to conversion of floral parts into leafy structures and rare fruiting.
• Management includes removal and destruction of infected plants, seedling dip in carbofuran, and spraying with dimethoate.

• Family Aleurodidae, order Hemiptera; adults have yellowish bodies, red eyes, and white or greenish wings.
• Common and serious pest of brinjal and other solanaceous crops; nymphs are pale yellow and sluggish.
• Life cycle completed in 13–122 days; up to 10–12 generations per year.
• Nymphs and adults suck sap, causing leaf withering, browning, and flower shedding; excrete honeydew leading to sooty mould and reduced photosynthesis.
• Control via insecticidal sprays (dimethoate, malathion, methyl demeton, monocrotophos).

• Family Aphididae, order Hemiptera; nymphs and adults are small, soft-bodied insects.
• Suck sap from leaves, causing yellowing, deformation, and drying of plants.
• Honeydew secretion promotes sooty mould growth, further reducing photosynthetic efficiency.
• Management includes seed treatment with imidacloprid or thiamethoxam, and use of yellow sticky traps.

• Family Tingidae, order Hemiptera; nymphs and adults feed on leaf sap.
• Infestation leads to yellowing, withering, and leaves covered with exuviae and excreta, especially in summer crops.
• Control by spraying with DDVP or dusting with carbaryl.

• Family Pyralidae, order Lepidoptera; caterpillars fold leaves from tip upwards and feed within the fold.
• Infested leaves wither and dry; larvae are always found inside the leaf fold.
• Management includes removal and destruction of infested leaves, and application of carbaryl dust or spray.

• Family Tetranychidae, order Acarina; tiny pests that suck cell sap from leaves.
• Infestation causes yellowing and withering of leaves, reducing plant vigor.
• Control measures include spraying with sulphur, dicofol, or abamectin, and dusting with sulphur.

• Maturity indices are signs or measurements indicating readiness for harvest.
• Correct harvest stage ensures optimal quality, shelf life, and market value.
• Improper timing leads to poor flavor, texture, and increased post-harvest losses.
• India loses 25–30% of produce due to improper harvest timing.

• Maturity: Stage when fruit/vegetable is fully developed and can ripen normally.
• Ripening: Qualitative changes after maturity making produce edible.
• Harvesting at correct maturity is crucial for quality and storage.

• Physiological maturity: End of development; ability to ripen after harvest (mainly for fruits).
• Horticultural (Commercial) maturity: Stage preferred by consumers; depends on intended use.
• Climacteric fruits: Harvest at mature but unripe stage.
• Non-climacteric fruits: Harvest at ripe stage.

• Ensure sensory and nutritional quality.
• Provide adequate shelf life and facilitate marketing.
• Help standardize harvest timing and improve productivity.
• Balance between shelf life and eating quality.

1. Subjective (Qualitative): Color, size, shape, firmness, aroma, sound.
2. Objective (Quantitative): TSS, acidity, starch content, oil content, firmness, dry matter, days after bloom, heat units, respiration, ethylene production.

• Size and shape: Final size/shape indicates maturity (e.g., mango cheeks, banana angularity).
• Color: Loss of green or development of characteristic color.
• Firmness: Softening indicates maturity (measured by penetrometer).
• Specific gravity: Increases with maturity; used for grading.

• Total Soluble Solids (TSS): Measured by refractometer; indicates sugar content.
• Titratable acidity (TA): Determined by titration; used with TSS for sugar-acid ratio.
• Calendar date/days after full bloom: Useful where climate is stable.
• Heat units: Degree-days required for maturity.

• Respiration rate: Climacteric rise indicates harvest time in some fruits.
• Ethylene evolution: Peaks at maturity in climacteric fruits.
• Volatile production: Specific aroma compounds signal maturity (e.g., apple, banana).

• Simple, easy, and inexpensive to use.
• Objective and related to quality and storage life.
• Show progressive change with maturity.
• Allow prediction from year to year.

• Affected by soil, nutrition, irrigation, climate, and variety.
• Position on plant and cultural practices influence indices.
• Visual indices may mislead due to environmental variation.

• Peel color change on shoulders.
• Tapka method: natural fruit drop.
• Specific gravity: 1.01–1.02.
• Days from fruit set to maturity.

Banana

• Disappearance of angularity; round fingers.
• Pulp:peel ratio 1.2–1.6; pH 5.2–5.6.
• Harvest at 75–80% maturity for distant markets.

Guava

• Color change from dark to light green.
• Specific gravity ~1.0.
• 17–20 weeks from fruit set to maturity.

• TSS: 16–24% (variety-dependent).
• Peel color, pulp texture, flavor, easy berry separation.

Papaya

• Skin color change at apex or yellow streaks.
• Latex becomes watery.

Pineapple

• 25% surface yellow for local market.
• Flattened eyes, TSS:acid ratio 21–27.

Jackfruit

• Dull, hollow sound when tapped.
• Spines widely spaced, aromatic odor.

• Rind color change (species-specific).
• TSS:acid ratio (e.g., sweet orange 8.5–8.9).
• Minimum juice content standards.

Pomegranate

• 135–170 days after anthesis.
• Peel color change, hard rind, metallic sound.

Sapota

• Dull orange/potato color, minimal latex.
• Disappearance of brown scaly surface.

• TSS, color change, firmness, ease of separation.
• Iodine test for starch breakdown.

Strawberry

• 2/3 to 3/4 red color for local markets.

Peach/Plum

• Days from full bloom, size, firmness, color, sugar:acid ratio.

Ber, Date Palm, Litchi, Fig, Custard Apple, Aonla

• Color change, TSS, acid ratio, specific gravity, days after pollination, sound, texture, and aroma as indices.

• Physiological maturity: Maximum growth and development.
• Commercial maturity: Stage required by market; varies by crop and edible part.
• Harvest timing affects marketability, storage, and quality.

• Curds 4–8 in. diameter, compact, white, smooth.

Cabbage

• Heads hard and solid, uniform color.

Broccoli

• Dark green, compact head, before yellow flowers appear.

Brussels Sprouts

• Sprouts 1–1.5 in. diameter, firm.

• Harvested from mature green to fully red, depending on market.

Eggplant

• Glossy, purplish-black or white color, 6–8 in. diameter.

Beans

• Pods filled with seeds, green, not yellowing.

Okra

• Pods 3–5 in. long, tender.

• Bulbs 2–4 in. diameter, tops fall over and dry.

Peas

• Pods fully developed, seeds not more than half full size.

Pepper

• Firm, crisp, full-sized; color depends on cultivar.

Potato

• Harvest when plants yellow and die down; avoid sun exposure.

• Full size, firm, glossy rind, ground spot cream to orange.

Cucumber

• Bright deep green, 2–3 in. long, before yellowing.

Watermelon

• Dull sound when thumped, yellow ground spot, brown tendrils.

Muskmelon

• Stem slips easily, netting rounded, flesh color change.

• Roots 1 in. diameter, dark tops.

Turnip

• Roots 2–3 in. diameter, tops 3–5 in. long.

Radish

• Roots 1 in. diameter, shoulders visible, avoid over-maturity.

Spinach

• Leaves 4–6 in. long, harvested at base.

• Maturity indices are essential for optimal harvest timing and quality.
• Indices vary by crop, variety, and intended use.
• Combination of visual, physical, chemical, and physiological indices is best.
• Proper harvest reduces losses and improves marketability.

• Tomato is affected by several insect pests causing significant yield loss.
• Pests attack various plant parts: leaves, stems, flowers, and fruits.
• Effective management requires correct identification and integrated approaches.

• Caterpillar: Varying color, radiating hairs, brown to greenish with dark lines.
• Moth: Medium-sized, light yellowish-brown, forewings with dark spot, hindwings pale with black border.

• Eggs laid on tender plant parts.
• Larval stage: 18–25 days; pupates in soil.
• Complete life cycle: ~30–40 days.

Nature of Damage:

• Young larvae feed on foliage; older larvae bore into fruits.
• Bores circular holes, feeds inside fruit, causing rot by secondary infection.
• One larva can damage 2–8 fruits.

• Collect and destroy infested fruits and larvae.
• Deep ploughing after harvest to expose pupae.
• Intercrop with marigold (1:16 rows) to attract egg-laying adults.
• Grow resistant varieties (e.g., Rupali, Roma, Pusa Red Plume).

Biological Control:

• Release Trichogramma pretiosum or T. chilonis (egg parasitoids).
• Release Chrysoperla carnea larvae (predator).
• Spray Bacillus thuringiensis or Helicoverpa NPV.

Chemical Control:

• Use pheromone traps (Helilure) at 12/ha.
• Recommended insecticides: Azadirachtin, Indoxacarb, Flubendiamide, Novaluron, Phosalone, Quinalphos (as per label rates).

• Larva: Minute, orange-yellow, apodous maggots.
• Adult: Small, pale yellow fly.

Life Cycle:

• Eggs laid singly on upper leaf surface.
• Larval period: 7–10 days; pupation in soil or leaves.
• Total life cycle: ~3 weeks.

Nature of Damage:

• Larvae mine between leaf epidermis, creating serpentine trails.
• Severe infestation causes leaf drying and drop.

Management:

• Remove and destroy mined leaves.
• Spray neem seed kernel extract (NSKE) 5%.

• Larvae mine leaves, stems, and fruits.
• Causes leaf necrosis, fruit damage, and yield loss.

Management:

• Use pheromone traps for monitoring and mass trapping.
• Remove and destroy infested plant parts.
• Apply biological agents (Trichogramma, Bacillus thuringiensis).
• Use recommended insecticides judiciously.

• Eggs: Pear-shaped, light yellow.
• Nymphs: Oval, scale-like, greenish-white.
• Adults: Tiny, white, scale-like.

Nature of Damage:

• Nymphs and adults suck sap, causing chlorosis and leaf curling.
• Vector of tomato leaf curl virus.

Management:

• Uproot and destroy infected plants.
• Remove alternate weed hosts (e.g., Abutilon indicum).
• Use yellow sticky traps (12/ha).
• Apply carbofuran or recommended insecticides (dimethoate, malathion, thiamethoxam).

• Nymphs and adults suck sap, causing yellowing, deformation, and drying.
• Honeydew secretion leads to sooty mould, reducing photosynthesis.

Management:

• Seed treatment with imidacloprid or thiamethoxam.
• Use yellow sticky traps.
• Spray recommended insecticides if needed.

• Nymphs: Yellowish.
• Adults: Dark, fringed wings.

Nature of Damage:

• Silvery streaks on leaves, bud necrosis, flower drop.
• Vector of tomato spotted wilt virus.

Management:

• Uproot and destroy diseased plants.
• Use yellow sticky traps (15/ha).
• Release Chrysoperla carnea larvae (10,000/ha).
• Spray methyl demeton or dimethoate as per recommendations.

• Eggs: Hyaline, globular, laid in masses.
• Nymphs: Yellowish.
• Adults: Small, red.

Nature of Damage:

• Leaves turn reddish-brown, bronzed, and dry.
• Webbing on leaves; severe infestation affects flowering and fruiting.

Management:

• Spray wettable sulphur (50 WP, 2g/lit).
• Spray dicofol (18.5 EC, 2.5 ml/lit).

• Correct pest identification is essential for effective management.
• Combine cultural, biological, and chemical methods for sustainable control.
• Monitor pest populations using traps and field scouting.
• Use resistant varieties and maintain field hygiene.
• Apply insecticides judiciously to avoid resistance and protect beneficial organisms.

• Tomato is susceptible to several insect pests causing significant yield loss.
• Major pests include fruit borer, leaf miner, whitefly, aphids, thrips, and red spider mite.
• Effective management requires correct identification and understanding of pest biology.

• Family: Noctuidae; Order: Lepidoptera

Economic Importance:

• Serious pest in tropical and subtropical regions.
• Damages tomato, tur, gram, and other crops.

Identification:

• Caterpillar: Varying color, radiating hairs, brown to greenish with dark lines.
• Moth: Medium-sized, light yellowish brown, forewings with dark spot, hindwings pale with black border.

• Eggs laid on tender plant parts.
• Larval stage lasts 18–25 days; pupates in soil.
• Total life cycle: 30–40 days.

Nature of Damage:

• Young larvae feed on foliage; older larvae bore into fruits.
• Circular holes in fruits; internal feeding leads to secondary infections.
• One larva can damage 2–8 fruits.

• Collect and destroy infested fruits and larvae.
• Deep ploughing after harvest to expose pupae.
• Intercrop with marigold (1:16 rows) to attract adults.

Biological:

• Release Trichogramma spp. and Chrysoperla carnea.
• Spray Bacillus thuringiensis (2g/lit) or HaNPV (250 LE/ha).

Chemical:

• Use pheromone traps (Helilure) at 12/ha.
• Spray recommended insecticides: Azadirachtin, Indoxacarb, Flubendiamide, Novaluron, Phosalone, Quinalphos.

• Family: Agromyzidae; Order: Diptera

Identification:

• Larva: Minute, orange-yellow, apodous maggots.
• Adult: Pale yellow, small fly.

Life Cycle:

• Eggs laid singly on upper leaf surface.
• Larval period: 7–10 days; pupates in soil or leaves.
• Total life cycle: ~3 weeks.

Damage:

• Larvae mine between leaf epidermis, causing serpentine trails.
• Severe cases cause leaf drying and drop.

• Collect and destroy mined leaves.
• Spray neem seed kernel extract (NSKE) 5%.
• Practice crop rotation and avoid overuse of insecticides to conserve natural enemies.

• Family: Gelechiidae; Order: Lepidoptera

Identification:

• Small, greyish-brown moth; larvae mine leaves, stems, and fruits.

Damage:

• Leaf mines, galleries in stems, and fruit damage.
• Can cause severe yield loss if unmanaged.

Management:

• Use pheromone traps for monitoring.
• Release natural enemies (Trichogramma spp.).
• Apply Bacillus thuringiensis or selective insecticides as needed.

• Family: Aleyrodidae; Order: Hemiptera

Identification:

• Eggs: Pear-shaped, light yellow.
• Nymphs: Oval, scale-like, greenish white.
• Adults: Tiny, white, scale-like.

Damage:

• Nymphs and adults suck sap, causing chlorosis and leaf curling.
• Vector of tomato leaf curl virus.

• Uproot and destroy infected plants.
• Remove alternate weed hosts (e.g., Abutilon indicum).
• Use yellow sticky traps (12/ha).
• Apply carbofuran 3% G @ 40 kg/ha or recommended insecticides: Dimethoate, Malathion, Oxydemeton-methyl, Thiamethoxam.

• Family: Aphididae; Order: Hemiptera

Identification:

• Small, soft-bodied insects, green or black.

Damage:

• Nymphs and adults suck sap, causing yellowing, deformation, and drying.
• Honeydew secretion leads to sooty mould, reducing photosynthesis.

Management:

• Seed treatment with imidacloprid or thiamethoxam.
• Use yellow sticky traps.
• Encourage natural predators (ladybird beetles, lacewings).

• Family: Thripidae; Order: Thysanoptera

Identification:

• Nymphs: Yellowish; Adults: Dark with fringed wings.

Damage:

• Silvery streaks on leaves, bud necrosis, flower drop.
• Vector of tomato spotted wilt virus.

Management:

• Uproot and destroy diseased plants.
• Use yellow sticky traps (15/ha).
• Release Chrysoperla carnea larvae (10,000/ha).
• Spray methyl demeton or dimethoate as needed.

• Family: Tetranychidae; Order: Acarina

Identification:

• Eggs: Hyaline, globular, laid in masses.
• Nymphs: Yellowish; Adults: Small, red.

Damage:

• Leaves turn reddish-brown, bronzed, and dry.
• Webbing on leaves; reduced flower and fruit set.

Management:

• Spray wettable sulphur 50 WP (2g/lit) or dicofol 18.5 EC (2.5 ml/lit).

• Combine cultural, biological, and chemical methods for effective pest control.
• Monitor pest populations regularly using traps and field scouting.
• Promote use of resistant varieties and natural enemies.
• Apply insecticides judiciously to avoid resistance and conserve beneficial insects.

• Citrus spp. belong to the family Rutaceae.
• Includes oranges, lemons, limes, pummelo, and grapefruit.
• Originated in tropical and subtropical Southeast Asia.
• Third most important fruit group in India after mango and banana.

• Acid group: Acid lime (C. aurantifolia), Lemon (C. limon), Citron (C. medica), etc.
• Orange group: Sweet orange (C. sinensis), Sour orange (C. aurantium).
• Mandarin group: C. reticulata, C. unshiu, C. deliciosa, Kinnow.
• Pummelo and grapefruit group: Pummelo (C. grandis), Grapefruit (C. paradisi), Kumquat (Fortunella sp.).
• Hybrids: Citrange, Tangelo, Citrangequat, used mainly as rootstocks.

• Best grown in subtropical climates, 500–1500 m MSL elevation.
• Optimal rainfall: 150–250 cm/year; mild winters preferred.
• Ideal soil: Medium/light loam, pH 5.5–6.5, well-drained.
• Acid lime prefers pH 6.5–7.0; sensitive to frost.

• Kodai Orange (C. reticulata): Vigorous, small, loose rind, heavy seeded.
• Nagpur Santra (C. reticulata): Leading commercial mandarin, fine texture, juicy, matures Jan–Feb.
• Coorg Mandarin (C. reticulata): Medium-large, bright orange, regular bearer.
• Satsuma Mandarin (C. unshiu): Japanese, seedless, thin rind, excellent quality.
• Kinnow (King × Willow leaf): Hybrid, high yield, export potential.
• Khasi Mandarin: North-East India, excellent quality, polyembryonic seeds.

• Seed propagation: Used for most mandarins; select true-to-type, healthy seeds.
• Vegetative propagation: T-budding on rootstocks like Rangpur lime, Cleopatra, Rough lemon, Troyer citrange.
• Budded plants bear earlier and are more uniform.
• Rootstocks selected for disease resistance and soil adaptability.

• Planting season: May–June and September–October (monsoon period).
• Spacing: 6 × 6 m for most mandarins; 5–6 m for acid lime.
• Pit size: 75 × 75 × 75 cm, filled with FYM, sand, and topsoil.
• High-density planting possible for Kinnow using Troyer citrange rootstock.

• Train trees to single stem with 4–6 main branches.
• Remove water shoots, rootstock sprouts, and laterals up to 45–50 cm height.
• Prune bearing trees after harvest to remove dead, diseased, and weak branches.
• Root pruning sometimes used for crop regulation.

• Mandarins may flower 1–3 times/year (Ambe, Mrig, Hast Bahar).
• Bahar treatment: Expose roots and withhold water to induce rest and synchronized flowering.
• Not recommended for light soils or North India.

• Apply FYM and NPK fertilizers in two splits (June and October).
• Micronutrients: Zn, Mn, Fe, Mg, B, Mo required; avoid excess Na and Cl.
• Apply lime/dolomite in acidic soils once every 2–3 years.
• Foliar sprays of micronutrients during new flushes improve growth.

• Young plants require regular irrigation, especially during dry spells.
• Mandarins: Water at 10–15 day intervals in winter, 5–7 days in summer.
• Avoid waterlogging; citrus is sensitive to excess moisture.
• Water should be free from salts.

• Weeds compete for nutrients and water, especially in young orchards.
• Pre-emergence herbicides: Diuron (5 kg/ha), Terbacil (4.5 kg/ha).
• Post-emergence: Atrazine (5–6 kg/ha), Glyphosate (5 L/ha).
• Intercropping with legumes (pea, cowpea, blackgram) is beneficial during pre-bearing years.

• 2,4-D (20 ppm) or NAA (30 ppm) sprayed at flowering and marble stage increases fruit retention.
• Improves fruit set and reduces premature fruit drop.

• Budded plants bear in 3–5 years; seedlings in 5–7 years.
• Yield: 15–20 t/ha/year; 1000–1500 fruits/tree/year at full bearing.
• Harvest when fruits are full-sized, colored, and have optimal sugar-acid blend.
• Use clippers or secateurs to avoid skin damage.

• Grade fruits by size and appearance; pack in wooden boxes or CFB cartons.
• Store at 8–10°C, 85–90% RH for best shelf life.
• HDPE/poly bags with ventilation extend storage life of Kinnow and Nagpur Santra.
• Waxing and neem leaf extract reduce post-harvest losses.

• Citrus requires careful varietal selection, proper soil, and climate management.
• Judicious nutrient and water management are essential for high yield and quality.
• Integrated weed, pest, and disease management improve orchard health.
• Proper post-harvest handling ensures better market returns.

• Mango (Mangifera indica) is known as the ‘king of fruits’ in India.
• India accounts for about 56% of global mango production.
• Major producing states: Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka, Maharashtra, West Bengal, Gujarat.
• Mango contributes nearly 39.5% of India’s total fruit production.

• Grows in alluvial to lateritic soils; avoid poorly drained black cotton soils.
• Prefers slightly acidic soils (pH 5.5–7.5); poor growth above pH 7.5.
• Good drainage is essential for healthy growth.

Climate:

• Tropical to subtropical; can be grown up to 1,100 m above sea level.
• Optimal temperature: 24–27°C; higher temperatures improve fruit quality.
• Requires 25–250 cm annual rainfall; avoid high humidity and frost during flowering.

• Over 1,000 varieties exist; about 20 are commercially important.
• Popular varieties: Alphonso, Banganapalli, Bombay Green, Chausa, Dashehari, Fazli, Gulab Khas, Himsagar, Kesar, Kishenbhog, Langra, Mankurad, Neelum, Pairi, Totapuri.
• Varietal preference varies by state and region.
• North Indian varieties often alternate-bearers; South Indian varieties are generally regular-bearers.

• Mango is highly heterozygous and cross-pollinated.
• Polyembryonic varieties (mainly in South India) can be grown from seed; monoembryonic (North India) require vegetative propagation.
• Common propagation methods: inarching, veneer grafting, side grafting, epicotyl/stone grafting.
• Rootstock seedlings are raised from fresh seeds (sown within 4–5 weeks of extraction).

• Planting systems: square, rectangular, and hexagonal; square and rectangular are most common.
• Spacing depends on variety vigor and cropping system; typically 10–12 m for traditional planting.
• Pits of 1 m × 1 m × 1 m are prepared and filled with well-rotted farmyard manure.
• Planting is best done during the rainy season (June–September).

• High-density planting increases yield per unit area.
• Amrapali is suitable for high-density planting (2.5 m × 2.5 m spacing).
• Paclobutrazol (2 ml/tree) induces flowering in off-years.
• Pruning and use of dwarfing rootstocks (e.g., Vellaikolumban) help manage tree size.

• Training is essential in early years to develop a strong framework.
• Proper branch spacing facilitates intercultural operations.
• Pruning is minimal; mainly removal of diseased, dead, or crossing branches.

• Apply 73 g N, 18 g P2O5, 68 g K2O per year of age (up to 10 years).
• After 10 years: 730 g N, 180 g P2O5, 680 g K2O per tree/year in two split doses (June–July, Sept–Oct).
• Correct micronutrient deficiencies with foliar sprays: 0.3% zinc sulphate, 0.5% borax, 0.5% manganese sulphate.

Irrigation:

• Young plants (up to 2 years) require regular watering (about 30 L/week).
• Irrigation during pre-flowering and fruit set increases yield.
• Established trees: irrigate at 10-day intervals after fruit set.

• Intercropping reduces weed growth and nutrient loss.
• Suitable intercrops: blackgram, wheat, brinjal, onion.
• Cover crops like sunhemp, cowpea, and pea help prevent soil erosion.

• Harvest mangoes with pedicel to reduce injury and fungal infection.
• Average yield: 8 tonnes/ha; 1,000–2,000 fruits/tree during bearing age.
• Sort and grade fruits by size; use proper packaging (perforated cardboard boxes preferred).
• Store mature green mangoes at 5–16°C; avoid chilling injury.
• Postharvest treatments: waxing, hot-water treatment, individual wrapping, hydro-cooling extend shelf life.

• Mango thrives in well-drained, slightly acidic soils and warm, humid climates.
• Choose suitable varieties and hybrids for region and market demand.
• Adopt high-density planting and proper nutrient management for higher productivity.
• Intercropping and postharvest care improve sustainability and fruit quality.

• Fruits are classified based on their temperature and climatic requirements.
• Main categories: temperate, subtropical, and tropical fruits.
• Some fruits can adapt to more than one climatic zone (e.g., mango, grape).
• Agroclimatic zones help determine suitable crops and cultivars for each region.

• Vegetative and flower buds enter dormancy in late summer or autumn.
• Require substantial winter chilling for bud break and growth.
• Frost-hardy; tolerant to snowfall and ice.
• Soils are usually shallow, acidic, and rainfall is adequate.
• Found at high elevations in India (e.g., Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh).

• Intermediate temperatures; brief chilling periods may occur.
• Fruits have no distinct rest period; light frost possible.
• Rainfall varies from low to high; soils are generally neutral and sandy loam/alluvial.
• Soil fertility is often low; photoperiodic requirement is not marked.
• Regions: Punjab, Haryana, parts of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Assam.

• Chilling temperatures are absent; high temperatures prevail year-round.
• Narrow day-night temperature variation; insignificant photoperiodic requirement.
• Rainfall and soil types vary widely (clay loam, alluvial, saline, sandy, laterite).
• Major fruit crops: mango, banana, papaya, guava.
• Regions: Central, Southern, and Coastal India.

• Low and erratic rainfall (100–500 mm annually); high evapotranspiration.
• High solar radiation and wind velocity; soils are sandy with low organic matter.
• Poor water holding capacity and saline groundwater in many areas.
• Major regions: Rajasthan, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Ladakh (cold arid).

• ICAR recognizes eight major agroclimatic zones for land use planning.
• Zones include: Western/Eastern Himalayas, Bengal-Assam, Sutlej-Ganga Plains, Eastern/Southern Islands, Arid Western Plains, Semi-arid Plateaus, Western Ghats.
• Each zone is characterized by unique climate, soil, and crop suitability.

• Fifteen broad agroclimatic zones based on physiography and climate.
• Examples: Western/Eastern Himalayan, Gangetic Plains, Plateau and Hills, Coastal Plains, Western Dry Region, Island Region.
• Used for effective agricultural planning and resource allocation.

• India divided into 21 agroecological regions based on physiography, soils, bioclimate, and growing period (GP).
• Growing period: Arid (<90 days), Semi-arid (90–150 days), Subarid (150–210 days), Humid (>210 days).
• Supports precise crop and land use planning.

• Tamil Nadu has seven climatic zones based on rainfall, altitude, and irrigation sources.
• Zones: North-eastern, North-western, Western, Cauvery Delta, Southern, High Rainfall, Hilly.
• Each zone has distinct rainfall patterns, soil types, and major crops.