Tag: nutrient management

• Sapota (Manilkara achras) is a tropical fruit introduced from Central America, widely cultivated in India.
• Commonly known as sapodilla or chiku, it belongs to the family Sapotaceae.
• Fruits are recommended for patients with tuberculosis and children with primary complex due to their nutritional value.
• Offers high economic returns, even under marginal land and low-input conditions.

• Grows well from sea level up to 1200 m altitude, preferring warm, moist climates.
• Optimal temperature range: 11°C to 34°C; annual rainfall: 1250–2500 mm.
• Best suited to coastal climates but adaptable to both dry and humid regions.
• Prefers deep, well-drained, porous soils such as alluvium, sandy loams, red laterites, and medium black soils.
• Tolerates moderate soil and irrigation water salinity.

• Propagation is mainly through grafting onto Manilkara hexandra (Pala) rootstock.
• Planting season: June to December; recommended spacing: 8 x 8 m (standard), 8 x 4 m (high density).
• Pits of 1 m³ are prepared and filled with topsoil, 10 kg FYM, 1 kg neem cake, and 100 g lindane (1.3%).
• Grafts are planted with the graft union at least 15 cm above ground and staked for support.

• Immediate and regular irrigation is crucial after planting; water copiously post-planting, then every 10 days until establishment.
• Annual application of FYM and NPK fertilizers, increasing with tree age; mature trees (6th year onwards) require 50 kg FYM, 1 kg N, 1 kg P, and 1.5 kg K per tree.
• Fertilizers should be applied in September–October, 45 cm from the trunk, and incorporated into the soil up to the leaf drip line.

• Regular removal of rootstock sprouts, water shoots, criss-cross, and lower branches is essential for healthy growth.
• Legumes and short-duration vegetable crops can be intercropped during the pre-bearing stage to improve soil fertility and income.

• Leaf webber: Controlled by spraying phosalone at 2 ml/liter.
• Hairy caterpillars: Managed with endosulfan at 2 ml/liter (note: endosulfan use is restricted in many countries; safer alternatives are recommended).
• Budworm: Controlled by phosalone spray at 2 ml/liter.
• Sooty mould: Treated by spraying a 5% solution of boiled maida or starch (1 kg in 20 liters water).

• Fruits are ready for harvest when dull brown and the skin beneath is lighter in color; mature fruits lose brown scaly material and have reduced latex.
• Harvesting is done by hand picking; main seasons are February–June and September–October.
• Ripening is accelerated by placing fruits in airtight chambers with 5000 ppm Ethrel and 10 g NaOH pellets.
• Yield starts from the third year, reaching 20–25 t/ha/year in mature orchards.

• Papaya (Carica papaya L.) belongs to the family Caricaceae and has a chromosome number of 2n=18.
• Native to Tropical America, papaya was introduced to India in the 18th century and is now widely cultivated in tropical and subtropical regions.
• Major producing states in India include Bihar, Assam, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, and Andhra Pradesh, with a cultivation area of approximately 34,000 ha.
• Papaya is valued for its high vitamin A content (2000 IU/100g) and is consumed fresh or processed into products like jam, jelly, and nectar.
• The fruit is a significant source of the proteolytic enzyme papain, which has diverse applications in medicine and industry.

• Papaya plants exhibit dioecious, hermaphrodite, and gynodioecious sex forms, influencing fruit set and orchard management.
• Dioecious types have separate male and female plants, while hermaphrodite and gynodioecious types bear both flower types on the same plant.
• Male flowers are borne on long panicles; female flowers are solitary and larger, with a prominent ovary.
• Fruit morphology varies: globular from female flowers and elongated from bisexual flowers.
• Sex expression is influenced by environmental factors (temperature, day length) and growth regulators (e.g., GA, ethrel, SADH, phosphon-D).

• Papaya thrives best in deep, well-drained loamy soils with uniform texture up to 1.8 m depth.
• Good drainage is essential; even brief water stagnation can cause collar-rot disease.
• Optimal temperature range is 35–38°C; papaya is sensitive to frost and extreme heat.
• Windbreaks are recommended in areas prone to strong winds to prevent tree damage.
• Regions with mild temperatures and low incidence of viral diseases, such as Tamil Nadu, are ideal for year-round cultivation.

• Papaya is primarily propagated by seeds, which are collected from mature, healthy fruits and cleaned before sowing.
• Seedlings are raised in nursery beds or polythene bags; the latter method produces more vigorous plants.
• For dioecious varieties, 2–3 seedlings per pit are planted to ensure sufficient female plants; excess males are removed after sex identification.
• Planting is done in pits of 45 x 45 x 45 cm at 1.8 x 1.8 m spacing, accommodating about 3000 plants/ha.
• The best planting time coincides with the onset of the South-West monsoon or during mild weather periods.

• Papaya requires regular and balanced fertilization due to its rapid growth and continuous fruiting habit.
• Recommended nutrient application includes 10 kg FYM/plant as basal and 50 g each of N, P, and K per plant bimonthly, or 250 g N, 250 g P2O5, and 500 g K2O per plant/year in split doses.
• Peak nutrient uptake occurs between flowering and harvesting stages.
• Regular irrigation is essential, typically every 8–10 days, but waterlogging must be avoided to prevent root diseases.
• Intercropping with short-duration vegetables is possible during the pre-bearing stage.

• Fruits mature 12–14 months after planting, with continuous cropping possible for up to 2 years.
• Harvesting is done when fruits change from green to yellowish-green, using careful hand picking to avoid damage.
• Average yield per tree ranges from 50 to 100 fruits; high-yielding varieties can produce 100–160 t/ha.
• Fruits for local markets are stored in straw layers; for distant transport, they are packed in straw-lined bamboo baskets.
• Yield and fruit quality depend on the proportion of female and hermaphrodite trees in the orchard.

• Papain is a proteolytic enzyme extracted from the latex of unripe, fully developed green papaya fruits.
• Latex is collected by making shallow incisions on the fruit surface, preferably using non-metallic tools to prevent discoloration.
• Collected latex is sun-dried or artificially dried at 50–55°C, then powdered and stored in airtight containers.
• Papain is used in medicine (digestive aid, ulcer treatment), food industry (meat tenderizer, beer clarification), textiles, cosmetics, and other industrial applications.
• Factors affecting papain yield include fruit size, maturity, and varietal characteristics; potassium metabisulphite may be added to improve quality and shelf life.

• Papaya is susceptible to several diseases, notably collar-rot, mosaic virus, and leaf curl virus, especially in poorly drained or virus-prone areas.
• Good field sanitation, use of disease-free seeds, and resistant varieties are key preventive measures.
• Regular weeding and removal of infected plants help reduce disease incidence.
• Common pests include fruit flies, aphids, and red spider mites; integrated pest management strategies are recommended.
• Windbreaks and proper irrigation management also contribute to reducing pest and disease pressure.

• Grapes belong to the family Vitaceae; scientific name: Vitis vinifera.
• Originated near the Caspian Sea (Armenia region).
• Viticulture refers to grape cultivation.
• Over 10,000 grape varieties exist worldwide.
• Grapes contribute significantly to global fruit production.

• Prefer semi-arid, subtropical regions with warm, dry summers and cool winters.
• Require long, dry summers for proper fruit maturity and ripening.
• High humidity and summer rains increase fungal disease risk.
• Rest period (dormancy) occurs in winter in temperate regions.
• In tropical regions, vines may have two growth cycles per year.

• Best grown in well-drained, deep loamy soils (minimum 1 m depth).
• Optimal soil pH: 6.5–7.0.
• Soils should be fertile and rich in organic matter.
• Poor drainage or waterlogging adversely affects vine health.

• Primarily propagated by hardwood cuttings from one-year-old healthy canes.
• Cuttings: 25–30 cm long, lower cut below a bud, upper cut above a bud.
• Callusing in moist sand before nursery planting improves rooting.
• Grafting and budding used for specific rootstock requirements (e.g., disease resistance).

• Phylloxera resistance: Vitis riparia, V. rupestris
• Nematode resistance: Dogridge, Salt Creek
• Salinity tolerance: Solonis, 1616

• Trenches (0.6 m width/depth) or pits (1 m3) prepared for planting.
• Apply well-decomposed FYM, compost, or green manure before planting.
• Spacing: 3 × 2 m (Muscat), 4 × 3 m (other varieties).
• Plant rooted cuttings during June–July.

• Irrigate immediately after planting, then weekly.
• Withhold irrigation 15 days before pruning and harvest.
• Drip irrigation is preferred for efficient water use.

• Apply FYM and green manure before planting and after pruning.
• Fertilizer doses vary by variety and vine age (see table below).
• Apply half the potassium dose after pruning, remainder after 60 days.
• Foliar spray: 0.1% boric acid + 0.2% ZnSO4 + 1% urea before flowering and 10 days later.

Example Fertilizer Schedule (kg/vine/year):

• Tipping shoots and tying clusters after fruit set.
• Remove tendrils and nip axillary/terminal buds at 12–15 buds.
• Thin compact bunches by removing ~20% berries at pea stage.
• Dip clusters in 0.5 ppm brassinosteroid + 25 ppm GA3 solution 10–12 days after fruit set.

• Grapes require specific soil, climate, and management for optimal yield and quality.
• Proper propagation, nutrient, and water management are essential.
• Special cultural practices improve fruit quality and market value.

• Citrus spp. belong to the family Rutaceae.
• Includes oranges, lemons, limes, pummelo, and grapefruit.
• Originated in tropical and subtropical Southeast Asia.
• Third most important fruit group in India after mango and banana.

• Acid group: Acid lime (C. aurantifolia), Lemon (C. limon), Citron (C. medica), etc.
• Orange group: Sweet orange (C. sinensis), Sour orange (C. aurantium).
• Mandarin group: C. reticulata, C. unshiu, C. deliciosa, Kinnow.
• Pummelo and grapefruit group: Pummelo (C. grandis), Grapefruit (C. paradisi), Kumquat (Fortunella sp.).
• Hybrids: Citrange, Tangelo, Citrangequat, used mainly as rootstocks.

• Best grown in subtropical climates, 500–1500 m MSL elevation.
• Optimal rainfall: 150–250 cm/year; mild winters preferred.
• Ideal soil: Medium/light loam, pH 5.5–6.5, well-drained.
• Acid lime prefers pH 6.5–7.0; sensitive to frost.

• Kodai Orange (C. reticulata): Vigorous, small, loose rind, heavy seeded.
• Nagpur Santra (C. reticulata): Leading commercial mandarin, fine texture, juicy, matures Jan–Feb.
• Coorg Mandarin (C. reticulata): Medium-large, bright orange, regular bearer.
• Satsuma Mandarin (C. unshiu): Japanese, seedless, thin rind, excellent quality.
• Kinnow (King × Willow leaf): Hybrid, high yield, export potential.
• Khasi Mandarin: North-East India, excellent quality, polyembryonic seeds.

• Seed propagation: Used for most mandarins; select true-to-type, healthy seeds.
• Vegetative propagation: T-budding on rootstocks like Rangpur lime, Cleopatra, Rough lemon, Troyer citrange.
• Budded plants bear earlier and are more uniform.
• Rootstocks selected for disease resistance and soil adaptability.

• Planting season: May–June and September–October (monsoon period).
• Spacing: 6 × 6 m for most mandarins; 5–6 m for acid lime.
• Pit size: 75 × 75 × 75 cm, filled with FYM, sand, and topsoil.
• High-density planting possible for Kinnow using Troyer citrange rootstock.

• Train trees to single stem with 4–6 main branches.
• Remove water shoots, rootstock sprouts, and laterals up to 45–50 cm height.
• Prune bearing trees after harvest to remove dead, diseased, and weak branches.
• Root pruning sometimes used for crop regulation.

• Mandarins may flower 1–3 times/year (Ambe, Mrig, Hast Bahar).
• Bahar treatment: Expose roots and withhold water to induce rest and synchronized flowering.
• Not recommended for light soils or North India.

• Apply FYM and NPK fertilizers in two splits (June and October).
• Micronutrients: Zn, Mn, Fe, Mg, B, Mo required; avoid excess Na and Cl.
• Apply lime/dolomite in acidic soils once every 2–3 years.
• Foliar sprays of micronutrients during new flushes improve growth.

• Young plants require regular irrigation, especially during dry spells.
• Mandarins: Water at 10–15 day intervals in winter, 5–7 days in summer.
• Avoid waterlogging; citrus is sensitive to excess moisture.
• Water should be free from salts.

• Weeds compete for nutrients and water, especially in young orchards.
• Pre-emergence herbicides: Diuron (5 kg/ha), Terbacil (4.5 kg/ha).
• Post-emergence: Atrazine (5–6 kg/ha), Glyphosate (5 L/ha).
• Intercropping with legumes (pea, cowpea, blackgram) is beneficial during pre-bearing years.

• 2,4-D (20 ppm) or NAA (30 ppm) sprayed at flowering and marble stage increases fruit retention.
• Improves fruit set and reduces premature fruit drop.

• Budded plants bear in 3–5 years; seedlings in 5–7 years.
• Yield: 15–20 t/ha/year; 1000–1500 fruits/tree/year at full bearing.
• Harvest when fruits are full-sized, colored, and have optimal sugar-acid blend.
• Use clippers or secateurs to avoid skin damage.

• Grade fruits by size and appearance; pack in wooden boxes or CFB cartons.
• Store at 8–10°C, 85–90% RH for best shelf life.
• HDPE/poly bags with ventilation extend storage life of Kinnow and Nagpur Santra.
• Waxing and neem leaf extract reduce post-harvest losses.

• Citrus requires careful varietal selection, proper soil, and climate management.
• Judicious nutrient and water management are essential for high yield and quality.
• Integrated weed, pest, and disease management improve orchard health.
• Proper post-harvest handling ensures better market returns.

• Banana (Musa spp.) is a major fruit crop and staple food in tropical regions.
• Origin: South East Asia; called ‘Apple of Paradise’.
• Main producing states: Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar.
• Edible bananas are mostly hybrids of M. acuminata and M. balbisiana.
• Fruits develop by parthenocarpy (without fertilization).

• Deep, well-drained soils rich in organic matter are ideal.
• Optimum soil pH: 5.5–8.0.
• Soil depth: At least 1 meter.

Climate:

• Prefers humid tropical climate.
• Temperature range: 10°C to 40°C (optimum ~23°C).
• Altitude: Up to 1500 m above mean sea level.
• Rainfall: Minimum 100 mm/month is beneficial.
• High wind velocity (>80 m/hr) can damage plants.

• Wet land: Feb–Apr (Poovan, Rasthali, Monthan), Apr–May (Nendran, Robusta).
• Garden land: Jan–Feb, Nov–Dec.
• Padugai land: Jan–Feb, Aug–Sep.
• Hill banana: Apr–May (lower Palani hills), Jun–Aug (Sirumalai).

Propagation Methods:

• By suckers: Sword suckers (vigorous, early bearing) and water suckers (less vigorous).
• Average sucker weight: 1.5–2 kg.
• Micropropagation (tissue culture) for rapid multiplication.

• Trim roots and decayed corm portions; cut pseudostem to 20 cm above corm.
• For wilt-prone varieties, dip corm in 0.1% carbendazim for 5 min.
• Pralinage: Dip corm in clay slurry and sprinkle with 40 g carbofuran 3G per sucker to control nematodes.
• Alternative: Dip in 0.75% monocrotophos, shade dry 24 hours before planting.

Field Preparation:

• Deep ploughing and leveling of land.
• Dig pits (45 cm x 45 cm x 45 cm); refill with topsoil, 10 kg FYM, 250 g neem cake, 50 g lindane 1.3%.

• Garden land: 1.8 x 1.8 m (3086 plants/ha) or 1.5 x 1.5 m (4444 plants/ha).
• Wet land: 2.1 x 2.1 m (2267 plants/ha).
• Hill: 3.6 x 3.6 m (750 plants/ha).
• High density: 3 suckers/pit at 1.8 x 3.6 m (4600 plants/ha).

• Immediate irrigation after planting; life irrigation on 4th day.
• Subsequent irrigation: Weekly (garden land), every 10–15 days (wetland).
• Drip irrigation: 15 L/plant/day (planting–4th month), 20 L/plant/day (5th month–shooting), 25 L/plant/day (shooting–15 days before harvest).

• Apply N, P, K as per land type and variety (see table below).
• Use neem-coated urea for N application.
• Apply N & K in 3 splits (3rd, 5th, 7th month); P at 3rd month.
• For tissue culture plants, apply 50% extra fertilizer at 2nd, 4th, 6th, 8th month.
• Biofertilizers: Azospirillum and Phosphobacteria (20 g each at planting and 5th month).

• Apply 25 L water/plant/day with 200:30:300 g N:P2O5:K2O/plant using water-soluble fertilizers.
• For cost-saving, use 30% recommended N & K via fertigation; full P as basal at 2nd month.

Micronutrients:

• Spray ZnSO4 (0.5%), FeSO4 (0.2%), CuSO4 (0.2%), H3BO3 (0.1%) at 3, 5, 7 months after planting.

• Bi-monthly digging and earthing-up.
• Desuckering: Remove side suckers monthly.
• Remove and burn dry/dead leaves.
• Remove male flower a week after last hand opens.
• Propping: Support bunches with bamboo or casuarina poles to prevent wind damage.

• Spray 2,4-D at 25 ppm after last hand opens to improve bunch grade and reduce seediness (Poovan).
• Spray CCC (1000 ppm) at 4th and 6th month to enhance yield.
• Spray plantozyme (2 ml/L) at 6th and 8th month for higher yield.
• Cover bunches with transparent polyethylene sleeves (2–4% ventilation) after last hand opens.

• Suitable intercrops: Leguminous vegetables, beetroot, elephant foot yam, sunhemp.
• Incorporate sunhemp at 45 days to reduce nematode build-up.
• Avoid cucurbitaceous vegetables as intercrops.

• Mango (Mangifera indica) is known as the ‘king of fruits’ in India.
• India accounts for about 56% of global mango production.
• Major producing states: Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka, Maharashtra, West Bengal, Gujarat.
• Mango contributes nearly 39.5% of India’s total fruit production.

• Grows in alluvial to lateritic soils; avoid poorly drained black cotton soils.
• Prefers slightly acidic soils (pH 5.5–7.5); poor growth above pH 7.5.
• Good drainage is essential for healthy growth.

Climate:

• Tropical to subtropical; can be grown up to 1,100 m above sea level.
• Optimal temperature: 24–27°C; higher temperatures improve fruit quality.
• Requires 25–250 cm annual rainfall; avoid high humidity and frost during flowering.

• Over 1,000 varieties exist; about 20 are commercially important.
• Popular varieties: Alphonso, Banganapalli, Bombay Green, Chausa, Dashehari, Fazli, Gulab Khas, Himsagar, Kesar, Kishenbhog, Langra, Mankurad, Neelum, Pairi, Totapuri.
• Varietal preference varies by state and region.
• North Indian varieties often alternate-bearers; South Indian varieties are generally regular-bearers.

• Mango is highly heterozygous and cross-pollinated.
• Polyembryonic varieties (mainly in South India) can be grown from seed; monoembryonic (North India) require vegetative propagation.
• Common propagation methods: inarching, veneer grafting, side grafting, epicotyl/stone grafting.
• Rootstock seedlings are raised from fresh seeds (sown within 4–5 weeks of extraction).

• Planting systems: square, rectangular, and hexagonal; square and rectangular are most common.
• Spacing depends on variety vigor and cropping system; typically 10–12 m for traditional planting.
• Pits of 1 m × 1 m × 1 m are prepared and filled with well-rotted farmyard manure.
• Planting is best done during the rainy season (June–September).

• High-density planting increases yield per unit area.
• Amrapali is suitable for high-density planting (2.5 m × 2.5 m spacing).
• Paclobutrazol (2 ml/tree) induces flowering in off-years.
• Pruning and use of dwarfing rootstocks (e.g., Vellaikolumban) help manage tree size.

• Training is essential in early years to develop a strong framework.
• Proper branch spacing facilitates intercultural operations.
• Pruning is minimal; mainly removal of diseased, dead, or crossing branches.

• Apply 73 g N, 18 g P2O5, 68 g K2O per year of age (up to 10 years).
• After 10 years: 730 g N, 180 g P2O5, 680 g K2O per tree/year in two split doses (June–July, Sept–Oct).
• Correct micronutrient deficiencies with foliar sprays: 0.3% zinc sulphate, 0.5% borax, 0.5% manganese sulphate.

Irrigation:

• Young plants (up to 2 years) require regular watering (about 30 L/week).
• Irrigation during pre-flowering and fruit set increases yield.
• Established trees: irrigate at 10-day intervals after fruit set.

• Intercropping reduces weed growth and nutrient loss.
• Suitable intercrops: blackgram, wheat, brinjal, onion.
• Cover crops like sunhemp, cowpea, and pea help prevent soil erosion.

• Harvest mangoes with pedicel to reduce injury and fungal infection.
• Average yield: 8 tonnes/ha; 1,000–2,000 fruits/tree during bearing age.
• Sort and grade fruits by size; use proper packaging (perforated cardboard boxes preferred).
• Store mature green mangoes at 5–16°C; avoid chilling injury.
• Postharvest treatments: waxing, hot-water treatment, individual wrapping, hydro-cooling extend shelf life.

• Mango thrives in well-drained, slightly acidic soils and warm, humid climates.
• Choose suitable varieties and hybrids for region and market demand.
• Adopt high-density planting and proper nutrient management for higher productivity.
• Intercropping and postharvest care improve sustainability and fruit quality.