Tag: plant-protection

• Tomato is a widely grown vegetable crop worldwide.
• Botanical name: Solanum lycopersicum; Family: Solanaceae; Chromosome number: 2n=24.
• Originated in the Andean region (Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia); domesticated in Mexico.
• Introduced to India by the British in 1828.

• Annual herb with a tap root system (up to 50 cm deep).
• Stem: Erect, solid, hairy, glandular; height 2–4 m.
• Leaves: Compound, pinnatifid, irregularly toothed margins.
• Flowers: Small, yellow, borne in racemes; perfect and hypogynous.
• Fruit: Fleshy berry, globular to oblate, 2–15 cm diameter; color varies from green to red/yellow/orange.
• Seeds: Numerous, kidney-shaped, hairy, light brown.

• Determinate: Bushy, self-topping, early maturity, staking not required.
• Indeterminate: Erect, continuous growth, late maturity, staking required.

Botanical Classification (Bailey, 1949):

• L. esculentum var. commune – Common round fruited
• L. esculentum var. grandifolium – Potato-leaved
• L. esculentum var. cerasiformae – Cherry tomato
• L. esculentum var. validum – Upright tomato
• L. esculentum var. pyriformae – Pear-shaped tomato

• Rich in vitamins (A, B, C), minerals (iron, phosphorus, calcium), amino acids, sugars, and dietary fiber.
• Ascorbic acid: 16–65 mg/100g; total sugars: ~2.5% in ripe fruit.
• Used fresh, in salads, pickles, preserves, and processed products (puree, paste, ketchup, sauce, juice).
• Contains lycopene (red pigment), carotenoids (yellow), and tomatine (alkaloid).

• India: ~8.8 lakh ha, 182 lakh tonnes, productivity ~20.7 t/ha.
• Leading states: Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Gujarat.
• Major export areas: Pune, Bangalore, Nasik, Amaravati.
• Main importers: Pakistan, UAE, Bangladesh, Nepal, Oman.

• High yield, disease resistance, fruit quality, shelf life, and TSS.

Popular Varieties:

• Pusa Ruby, Arka Vikas, Arka Meghali, Arka Saurabh, Arka Abha, Pusa Early Dwarf, PKM-1, Hisar Anmol, Pant Bahar.

Hybrids:

• Arka Rakshak, Arka Samrat, Arka Shreshta, Pusa Divya, Rashmi, Rupali, IAHS-88.2.

Special Traits:

• Resistant to ToLCV: Nandi, Sankranti, Vaibhav, Arka Rakshak.
• Resistant to bacterial wilt: Arka Alok, Arka Abha, Arka Shreshta.

• Warm season crop; optimum temperature: 20–24°C.
• Fruit set best at 15–20°C; lycopene synthesis optimal at 21–24°C.
• Grows in all soils; sandy loam preferred for early crop, heavy soils for high yield.
• Soil pH: 6.0–7.0; moderately tolerant to acidic soils (pH 5.5).

• Seed rate: OPV 300–400 g/ha; Hybrids 125–175 g/ha.
• Seed treatment: Captan/Thiram @ 2 g/kg seed.
• Nursery: Raised beds, protected with shade net, use sterilized cocopeat in protrays.
• Seedlings ready in 25–30 days; hardened before transplanting.
• Transplanting at 4–5 weeks; spacing: 60 × 45 cm.

• Apply FYM @ 25 t/ha and neem cake @ 100 kg/ha before last ploughing.
• Raised beds (120 cm width) for better drainage.
• Mulching (plastic or organic) conserves moisture, controls weeds, and regulates soil temperature.
• Plastic mulch (25 micron) can increase yield by 45–50%.

• Total water requirement: 600–700 mm/ha.
• Drip irrigation is efficient, saves water (up to 42%), and increases yield (up to 60%).
• Frequent irrigation essential, especially during flowering and fruiting.
• Balanced fertilization with NPK and micronutrients is crucial.

• Weeding: Two hand hoeings and earthing up recommended.
• Pre-emergence herbicides: Metribuzin (0.35 kg/ha), Pendimethalin (1.0 kg/ha).
• Staking and training improve fruit quality and reduce disease incidence (especially for indeterminate types).
• Pruning and desuckering maintain balance between vegetative growth and fruiting.

• Ethephon (200–500 mg/L): Flower induction, rooting.
• 2,4-D (2–5 mg/L): Increases fruit set, induces parthenocarpy.
• GA3 (50–100 mg/L): Promotes shoot elongation and yield.
• PCPA (50 mg/L): Enhances fruit set under adverse conditions.

• First harvest: 60–85 days after transplanting, depending on variety.
• Harvest stages: Immature green, mature green, breaker, pink, hard ripe, overripe.
• Grading based on color, size, and maturity; BIS grades: Super A, Super, Fancy, Commercial.
• Storage: 12–15°C, 85–90% RH; mature green fruits can be stored up to 30 days.

• Open field: 50 t/ha; Greenhouse: up to 150 t/ha (Singh et al., 2013).
• Yield depends on variety, management, and environmental conditions.

• Brown, sunken lesions at blossom end; due to calcium deficiency and irregular watering.

Fruit Cracking

• Radial/concentric cracks; caused by irregular irrigation, boron deficiency, genetic factors.

Sun Scald

• Blistered, water-soaked areas on exposed fruits; aggravated by defoliation and pruning.

Puffiness

• Partially filled, light fruits; due to poor fertilization, high temperature, or moisture.

Cat Face

• Distorted blossom end with ridges and furrows; linked to low temperature during flowering.

• Regular irrigation and balanced fertilization (especially calcium and boron).
• Avoid excessive pruning and staking during hot periods.
• Grow resistant/tolerant varieties for specific disorders.
• Apply foliar sprays: CaCl2 (0.5%), borax (0.3–0.4%) as needed.

• Use yellow sticky traps, pheromone traps, and biological control (Chrysoperla, Trichogramma).
• Spray recommended insecticides (e.g., dimethoate, malathion, neem formulations) as per guidelines.
• Practice crop rotation and destruction of infested plant parts.

• Use raised beds, seed treatment with Trichoderma/Thiram, drench with copper oxychloride.

Early Blight (Alternaria solani)

• Remove debris, crop rotation, spray Mancozeb 0.2%.

Late Blight (Phytophthora infestans)

• Remove affected plants, crop rotation, drench with copper oxychloride/Bordeaux mixture.

Fusarium Wilt (Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. lycopersici)

• Remove affected plants, spot drench with carbendazim, rotate with non-host crops.

Bacterial Wilt (Ralstonia solanacearum)

• Use resistant varieties, crop rotation with non-hosts.

Mosaic (TMV), Leaf Curl (ToLCV)

• Use disease-free seed, vector control (imidacloprid, dimethoate), crop rotation.

• Use resistant varieties and healthy seedlings.
• Practice crop rotation and field sanitation.
• Monitor pests/diseases regularly; use traps and biocontrol agents.
• Apply chemicals judiciously, following recommended doses and intervals.

• Tomato is a high-value crop with diverse uses and nutritional benefits.
• Proper variety selection, climate, soil, and cultural practices are key for high yield.
• Integrated management of pests, diseases, and physiological disorders ensures quality production.
• Knowledge of post-harvest handling and storage extends shelf life and marketability.

• Apple (Malus domestica) belongs to family Rosaceae.
• Known as the “king of temperate fruits.”
• Major table fruit globally; widely consumed fresh and processed.
• Originated in Central Asia; cultivated for over 4000 years.

• Origin: Central Asia (Kazakhstan region).
• China is the largest producer globally.
• In India, major states: Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland.
• Apple is the main horticultural crop in Himachal Pradesh.

• Consumed fresh; also processed into juice, jelly, cider, wine.
• Rich in dietary fiber, vitamins (A, B1, B2, C), and minerals (P, Ca, Fe).
• One medium apple: ~95 kcal, 0.47g protein, 4.4g fiber.
• “An apple a day keeps the doctor away.”

• Deciduous tree, 1.8–4.6 m tall in cultivation.
• Leaves: alternate, simple, serrated margins, downy underside.
• Flowers: white with pink tinge, 5-petaled, borne in cymes.
• Fruit: pome type, red/yellow skin, pale flesh.

• Two types: Diploids (self-fruitful) and Triploids (require pollinizers).
• Common diploids: Red Delicious, Golden Delicious, Jonathan.
• Triploids: Baldwin, Northern Spy.
• Indigenous: Ambri (Kashmir).
• Important hybrids: Lal Ambri, Sunehri, Ambstarking, Ambroyal, Ambrich, Chaubattia Princess, Ambredred.

• Requires 1000–1500 chilling hours below 7°C for dormancy break.
• Optimal elevation: 1500–2700 m above MSL.
• Ideal temperature: 21–24°C during growth.
• Needs frost-free spring, adequate sunshine, 100–125 cm well-distributed rainfall.

• Prefers loamy, well-drained soils, pH 5.5–6.5, rich in organic matter.
• Gentle to moderate slope; avoid waterlogging and hardpan.
• Propagation: vegetative (budding/grafting) on crab apple or Malling rootstocks.
• Malling IX controls vigor; Malus baccata common rootstock in India.

• Planting season: January–February.
• Spacing varies: low (<250/ha), moderate (250–500/ha), high (500–1250/ha), ultra-high (>1250/ha).
• Systems: square/hexagonal (valleys), contour (slopes).
• Pits: 1m × 1m × 1m, filled with FYM, SSP, Malathion dust.
• Irrigate immediately after planting.

• FYM: 10 kg/tree/year; increase with age.
• N:P:K ratio: 70:35:70 g/year/tree (increase with age).
• After 10 years: 700:350:700 g NPK/tree/year.
• Correct micronutrient deficiencies (Zn, B, Mn, Ca) via foliar sprays.

• Annual water requirement: ~114 cm; 15–20 irrigations/year.
• Critical period: April–August (fruit set to development).
• Training: modified central leader system for standard trees.
• Spindle bush system for high-density orchards.
• Pruning maintains balance between growth and fruiting.

• Weed control: glyphosate, paraquat, mulching (hay, black alkathene).
• Intercropping: green manure crops (sunflower, beans) in early years.
• Growth regulators: carbaryl, NAA for fruit thinning and quality improvement.

• Harvest at physiological maturity; apples are climacteric fruits.
• Maturity indices: TSS, color change, seed color, fruit firmness.
• Yield: 40–100 kg/tree at full bearing (after 5 years).
• Productive lifespan: up to 50 years; alternate bearing common in some varieties.

• Woolly aphid: use resistant rootstocks (M778, MM104, MM110, etc.).
• Biological control: Aphelinus mali, coccinellid predators.
• Chemical control: carbofuran, chlorpyrifos, malathion, oxydemeton-methyl, quinalphos.

• Apple scab: spray schedule with mancozeb, captafol, carbendazim.
• Use stickers (Triton/Teepol) for better spray adherence.
• Lichens: control with quick lime spray after pruning.

• Pre-cooling: remove field heat before grading and packing.
• Grading: by size, color, quality (AAA, AA, A, etc.).
• Storage: 4–8 months at -1.1°C to 0°C, 85–90% RH.
• Packing: wooden boxes or corrugated fiberboard cartons (10–20 kg capacity).

• Selection of suitable varieties and rootstocks is crucial.
• Proper site, soil, and climate are essential for high yield and quality.
• Integrated orchard management ensures productivity and sustainability.
• Timely pest, disease, and post-harvest management maximize returns.

• Apple is called the ‘King of Temperate Fruits’ and is a symbol of health.
• Deciduous fruit tree, widely grown in temperate regions worldwide.
• India’s main apple-producing states: Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Uttarakhand.
• Apples have a long storage life and high economic value.

• Rich in carbohydrates, dietary fiber, vitamins (A, C), and minerals (K, Ca).
• Contains antioxidants and phytochemicals beneficial for health.
• Low in fat and cholesterol.

• Botanical name: Malus domestica; Family: Rosaceae; Subfamily: Maloideae.
• Chromosome number: 2n=34 (x=17).
• Origin: Southwestern Asia.
• Fruit type: Pome; Edible part: fleshy thalamus (mesocarp).
• Major sugar: Sorbitol; Flower color: white to pink.

• China is the largest apple producer globally.
• In India, apples account for 55% area and 75% production among temperate fruits.
• Major Indian states: Himachal Pradesh (83% area), Jammu & Kashmir (45%), Uttarakhand (30%).
• Also grown in NE states and Nilgiri hills (Tamil Nadu).

• Altitude: 1500–2700 m above mean sea level.
• Temperature: 21–24°C (fruit set: 21.1–26.7°C).
• Chilling requirement: 1000–1500 hours below 7°C in winter.
• Rainfall: 100–125 cm annually.
• Soil: Loamy, rich in organic matter, pH 5.5–6.5.

• Early: Tydeman’s Early, Benoni, Early Shanburry.
• Mid-season: Starking Delicious, Red Delicious, McIntosh.
• Late: Golden Delicious, Yellow Newton, Granny Smith.
• Spur types: Red Spur, Starkrimson, Oregon Spur.
• Scab-resistant: Co-Op-12, Florina, Firdous.
• Low-chilling: Michal, Schlomit.
• Triploid: Baldwin, Mutsu, Bramley’s Seedling.

• Seedling rootstocks: Raised from Malus baccata or commercial cultivars.
• Clonal rootstocks: Propagated by mound/stool layering.
• Dwarfing: M9 (high-density planting, weak anchorage).
• Semi-dwarf: M4, M7, MM106 (aphid-resistant, collar rot susceptible).
• Semi-vigorous: MM111, MM104 (drought-tolerant, aphid-resistant).
• Vigorous: Merton 793 (aphid and collar rot resistant).

• Depends on scion-rootstock combination and tree vigor.
• Standard: 6×6 m (278 trees/ha); Semi-dwarf: 4.5×4.5 m (494 trees/ha).
• Dwarf: 1.5×1.5 m (4444 trees/ha) for high-density planting.
• Ultra-high density: >1250 trees/ha.

• Whip and tongue grafting is commonly used.
• Rootstocks: Malus sylvestris, M. prunifolia, M. sikkimensis, or hybrids.
• Grafting/budding performed on one-year-old rootstock seedlings.

• Pit size: 1m x 1m x 1m; Planting systems: square or hexagonal.
• Best planting time: January–February.
• Apply 30–40 kg FYM, 500 g single super phosphate, 50 g Malathion dust per pit.

• Apple is self-incompatible; cross-pollination is essential.
• Pollinizer plants should comprise 11–30% of orchard trees.
• Recommended pollinizers: Royal Delicious, Red Delicious, Golden Delicious.

• FYM: 10 kg/year age of tree.
• N:P:K: 70:35:70 g/year age (up to 10th year).
• Micronutrient sprays: Urea (5%), CaCl2 (0.5%), ZnSO4 (0.5%), MnSO4 (0.4%), H3BO3 (0.1%).
• Adjust fertilizer in ‘off’ years (lower crop load).

• Critical stage: fruit set (April–August).
• Annual water requirement: ~114 cm (15–20 irrigations/year).
• Summer: irrigate every 7–10 days; Winter: every 3–4 weeks.

• Herbicides: Glyphosate (800 ml/ha), Paraquat (0.5%) for post-emergence control.
• Mulching with hay, black alkathene, dry grass, or oak leaves conserves moisture and suppresses weeds.

• Green manure crops (sunflower, bean) improve soil texture and fertility in young orchards.
• Intercropping is recommended during early years of plantation.

• Three types: early drop (poor pollination), June drop (moisture stress), pre-harvest drop (economic loss).
• Pre-harvest drop controlled by NAA spray (10 ppm) one week before expected drop.

• Carbaryl (750–1000 ppm) or NAA (10–20 ppm) at petal fall improves fruit set and color.
• Growth regulators enhance flowering and fruit quality.

• Modified central leader system for standard trees ensures good light penetration.
• Spindle bush system for high-density planting in mid hills.
• Pruning maintains balance between vegetative growth and fruiting spurs.
• Remove weak/undesirable branches after six years.

• Economic bearing starts from 8th year; productive life up to 30–40 years.
• Harvest before full ripeness; maturity index: color change, starch index 1–2.
• Average yield: 11–13 t/ha (Himachal Pradesh, J&K); 5–6 t/ha (Uttarakhand).

• Hand harvesting, ladder harvesting, and mechanical harvesting are used.
• Handle fruits carefully to avoid bruising and post-harvest losses.

• Woolly aphid (Eriosoma lanigerum): Sucks sap, weakens trees.
• Control: Resistant rootstocks (M778, MM14), dimethoate 0.06%, methyl demeton 0.025%, natural predator Aphytis mali.
• San Jose scale (Quadraspidiotus perniciosus): Causes bark discoloration, fruit damage.
• Control: Phosalone 0.05%, fenitrothion 0.05%, winter diesel oil emulsion spray.

• Apple scab (Venturia inaequalis): Olive to black velvety spots on leaves/fruits.
• Control: Clean cultivation, Tridemorph 0.1%, Mancozeb 0.25%.
• Fire blight (Erwinia amylovora): Water-soaked, shriveled, blackened leaves.
• Control: Remove affected parts, spray Streptomycin 500 ppm.

• Water core: Boron deficiency; correct with borax application.
• Bitter pit: Calcium deficiency; correct with CaCO3 application.
• Rosette leaf: Zinc deficiency; correct with ZnSO4 application.

• Steps: Harvesting, precooling, grading, storage, packing, transportation, marketing.
• Storage: 4–8 months at 0–1.1°C, 85–90% RH.
• Packing: Wooden boxes or corrugated fiberboard cartons (10–20 kg).

• Old orchards with declining productivity.
• Inadequate pollinizers and outdated varieties.
• Poor adoption of clonal rootstocks, pruning, and micronutrient management.
• Low water/fertilizer use efficiency; weather risks (frost, hail).
• Major disease: Apple scab; post-harvest losses due to poor handling.

• Expand cultivar base and adopt low-chilling, disease-resistant varieties.
• Promote high-density planting, scientific water management, and renewal pruning.
• Improve post-harvest infrastructure and processing capacity.
• Encourage tissue culture for rapid multiplication of quality planting material.

• Apple is vital for India’s horticultural economy, especially in hill regions.
• Systematic cultivation, improved varieties, and modern management can boost productivity and income.
• Focus on high-density planting, integrated nutrient and pest management, and post-harvest practices is essential.