This presentation provides a comprehensive overview of the cultivation of pomegranate (Punica granatum), a subtropical fruit crop of significant economic importance. It covers key aspects such as botanical characteristics, agro-climatic requirements, propagation, orchard management, pest and disease control, and post-harvest handling. The content is structured to support academic understanding and practical application in horticultural production systems.
General Information
- Order: Myrtales; Family: Punicaceae; Scientific name: Punica granatum L.
- Chromosome number: 2n = 2x = 16, 18; Synonyms include Punica florida, P. grandiflora, P. nana, and P. spinosa.
- Pomegranate is a subtropical, non-climacteric fruit with aril as the edible portion.
- Fruit type: Balausta; exhibits low maintenance cost and is salt hardy.
- Primarily grown for its nutritional and medicinal value.
Area and Distribution
- Native to Iran (Persia), now widely cultivated in India and other countries.
- India leads global pomegranate production, with Maharashtra accounting for ~73% of area.
- Other Indian states: Gujarat, Rajasthan, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana.
- Major export destinations: UAE, Netherlands, UK, Saudi Arabia, Russia, Bangladesh, Egypt, Nepal, Oman.
Industrial Uses
- Consumed fresh or processed into juice, syrups, jelly, and wine.
- Juice is rich in citric acid and sodium citrate; used in pharmaceutical and food industries.
- Seed oil has industrial applications.
- Medicinal uses include treatment for digestive disorders and as a dietary supplement.
Agro-Climatic Requirements
- Thrives in semi-arid to subtropical climates; tolerates altitudes up to 1800 m.
- Requires hot, dry summers and cool winters; frost tolerant during dormancy but injured below -11°C.
- Prefers well-drained sandy loam to deep loamy or alluvial soils; salt tolerant.
- Optimal temperature: up to 38°C; adequate irrigation is essential for fruit development.
Varieties Cultivated
- Major Indian varieties: Alandi (Vadki), Dholka, Kandhari, Ganesh (GB I), Muskat, Nabha.
- Other selections: G 137, P 23, P 26, Mridula, Aarakta, Jyoti, Ruby, IIHR Selection, Yercaud 1, Co 1.
- Varieties differ in fruit size, rind color, aril color, seed hardness, and juice quality.
Notable Varieties: Characteristics
- Ganesh: High-yielding, medium-sized fruit, pinkish flesh, soft seeds, agreeable taste.
- Alandi: Medium fruit, blood red arils, sweet-acidic juice, hard seeds.
- Dholka: Large fruit, greenish-white rind, sweet-acidic juice, soft seeds; prominent in Gujarat.
- Kandhari: Large, deep red rind, dark red flesh, slightly acidic juice, hard seeds; grown in Himachal Pradesh.
- Muskat: Small-medium fruit, thick rind, moderately sweet juice, rosy seeds.
- Nabha: Medium tree, yellowish smooth skin, 65% juice, light pink arils, medium soft seeds.
Propagation
- Vegetative propagation preferred to maintain varietal traits; cuttings are most common.
- Best time for cuttings: December–January (dormant period).
- Cuttings planted directly in nursery fields; rooting enhanced with 10,000 ppm IBA in lanolin.
- Air-layering (gootee) is also practiced for propagation.
Planting Operations
- Spacing: 5 x 5 m in square system; pit size: 60 x 60 x 60 cm.
- Pits refilled with topsoil, 20–25 kg FYM/compost, and 1 kg single superphosphate (SSP).
- Best planting time: January–mid-February (North India), monsoon season (South India).
Flowering and Fruiting
- Commercial bearing starts 3–4 years after planting.
- Multiple flowering seasons: 3 in Western India, 2 in Northern India.
- Anthesis occurs between 8 AM and 4 PM, peaking at 2 PM; stigma receptive up to 5 days.
- Fruit set rates: Dholka 63.8%, Bedana 63%.
Orchard Cultural Practices: Irrigation and Interculture
- Regular irrigation essential from flowering to harvest; drought stress causes flower drop and fruit cracking.
- Winter irrigation interval: 8–10 days; summer: 4–6 days.
- Drip irrigation recommended for efficient water use.
- Shallow inter-cultivation suppresses weeds and conserves soil moisture; mulching advised.
Orchard Cultural Practices: Manuring and Training
- Apply FYM and fertilizers as per plant age; split doses recommended for nutrients.
- Manure applied at monsoon onset; fertilizers in trenches around plants.
- Immediate irrigation after manuring enhances nutrient uptake.
- Training to multi-stem system from second year; regular pruning removes weak, dead, or diseased wood.
- Apply Bordeaux paste to pruning cuts to prevent infection.
Crop Regulation and Pollination
- Flowering regulated by bahar treatments: Mrig (June–July), Hasth (Sept–Oct), Ambe (Feb–Mar).
- Fertilizer and irrigation schedules adjusted for desired bahar.
- Pomegranate is both self- and cross-pollinated; hand pollination increases fruit set.
Harvesting and Post-Harvest Handling
- Fruits mature in 5–7 months; harvest indicators: color change, softening, flattening of ridges, metallic sound when tapped.
- Harvest with secateurs/clippers to avoid fruit damage.
- Sort fruits by size, maturity, and blemishes; pack in cushioned crates or baskets.
- Transport promptly to markets to maintain quality.
Physiological Disorders: Fruit Cracking
- Caused by boron and calcium deficiencies, irregular irrigation, and environmental stress.
- Cracked fruits are susceptible to insect and fungal attack, reducing marketability.
- Mrig bahar crop is more prone to cracking.
- Control: light irrigation, windbreaks, borax spray (0.1%), GA3 spray (250 ppm) in June.
Major Insect Pests
- Pomegranate butterfly (Virachola isocrates): larvae bore into fruit, causing rot and drop.
- Bark eating caterpillar (Indarbela quadrinotata): bores into trunk, causing webbing and stem death.
- Sap-sucking insects: aphids, mealy bugs, thrips; cause stunted growth and sooty mold.
Insect Pest Management
- Remove and destroy infested fruits and plant parts regularly.
- Neem-based sprays (NSKE 5%, neem oil 3%) deter oviposition; repeat applications as needed.
- Bagging fruits post fruit set prevents pest entry.
- Bark caterpillar: clean webs, insert petrol/kerosene-soaked cotton in holes, seal with mud; alternate sprays of Carbaryl, Quinalphos, or Methomyl as per recommendations.
Major Diseases and Management
- Leaf spot and fruit spot (Xanthomonas punicae): water-soaked, dark spots on leaves and fruits; can cause defoliation and fruit cracking.
- Fruit rot (Phomopsis sp.): affects flowers and young fruits, causing premature drop and spotting; prevalent in rainy season.
- Cultural control: use disease-free seedlings, proper spacing, organic amendments, and recommended NPK.
- Chemical control: spray Captan or Dithane M-45 (0.2%) for leaf spot; Dithane Z-78 (0.2%) for fruit rot at fortnightly intervals.
- Remove and destroy infected plant parts to reduce inoculum.
Objective Questions
Q1. Which of the following is NOT a synonym for Punica granatum L.?
A. Punica florida Salisb.
B. Punica grandiflora hort. ex Steud.
C. Punica indica Roxb.
D. Punica nana L.
Answer: C
Q2. Which pomegranate variety is specifically noted for having soft seeds and being an important variety of Gujarat?
A. Alandi
B. Dholka
C. Kandhari
D. Muskat
Answer: B
Q3. The best time for making cuttings for vegetative propagation of pomegranate is:
A. March-April
B. June-July
C. December-January
D. September-October
Answer: C
Q4. Which of the following bahar treatments is associated with the highest susceptibility to fruit cracking in pomegranate?
A. Mrig bahar
B. Hasth bahar
C. Ambe bahar
D. None of the above
Answer: A
Q5. The recommended basal application per pit at planting for pomegranate includes:
A. 10-15 kg FYM + 2 kg SSP
B. 20-25 kg FYM/Compost + 1 kg SSP
C. 5 kg FYM + 0.5 kg SSP
D. 30 kg FYM + 3 kg SSP
Answer: B
Q6. Which of the following is a major symptom of pomegranate fruit borer (Virachola isocrates) infestation?
A. Yellowing of leaves
B. Offensive smell and excreta at entry holes
C. Wilting of branches
D. Leaf curling
Answer: B
Q7. Which chemical is recommended for improving rooting in pomegranate cuttings?
A. Indole-3-acetic acid (IAA)
B. Naphthalene acetic acid (NAA)
C. Butyric acid (10000 ppm in lanolin)
D. Gibberellic acid (GA3)
Answer: C
Q8. The main edible portion of the pomegranate fruit is:
A. Mesocarp
B. Endocarp
C. Aril
D. Seed coat
Answer: C
Q9. Which of the following is NOT a recommended control measure for bark eating caterpillar (Indarbela quadrinotata) in pomegranate?
A. Cleaning webs around affected portion
B. Inserting cotton swab soaked in petrol or kerosene into holes
C. Spraying neem oil (3%)
D. Sealing holes with mud
Answer: C
Q10. The pathogen responsible for leaf spot and fruit spot in pomegranate is:
A. Phomopsis sp.
B. Xanthomonas punicae
C. Alternaria alternata
D. Fusarium oxysporum
Answer: B
Post-harvest management of vegetable crops involves a series of methods and technologies aimed at reducing losses and maintaining product quality from harvest to consumption. Effective post-harvest handling is essential for minimizing spoilage, extending shelf life, and ensuring food security. Key aspects include proper harvesting, handling, storage, packaging, and transportation, all of which impact the final quality and marketability of vegetables. Important academic concepts include senescence, post-harvest losses, maturity indices, storage conditions, and packaging.
Introduction to Post-Harvest Management of Vegetables
- Fresh vegetables are highly perishable due to active senescence processes.
- Post-harvest management includes all activities from harvest to consumption.
- Main goal: minimize losses and maintain quality and nutritional value.
- Key activities: harvesting, handling, storage, processing, packaging, transport, and marketing.
Objectives of Post-Harvest Management
- Understand techniques to reduce post-harvest losses in vegetables.
- Identify causes and control measures for post-harvest losses.
- Recognize marketing channels and associated losses.
- Learn various post-harvest management techniques.
Importance of Post-Harvest Management
- Maintains quality and extends shelf life of vegetables.
- Reduces food losses, poverty, and food insecurity.
- Improves market share and competitiveness for smallholders.
- Enhances human nutrition and health.
- Reducing losses is often easier than increasing yield.
Causes of Post-Harvest Losses
- Improper harvesting (immature, over-mature produce).
- Faulty post-harvest practices and poor handling.
- Inadequate sorting, grading, and storage conditions.
- Improper packaging and delayed transport.
- Biological (pests, diseases), chemical, mechanical, physical, and physiological factors.
Types of Post-Harvest Losses
- Biological: Pests, diseases, microbial spoilage.
- Chemical: Contamination, off-flavors from pathogens or chemicals.
- Mechanical: Injuries, bruises, cuts during handling.
- Physical: Water loss, temperature extremes.
- Physiological: Sprouting, rooting, senescence, respiration changes.
Vegetable Marketing Channels
- Farmers → Wholesalers → Retailers → Consumers
- Farmers → Cooperatives → Retailers/Consumers
- Farmers → Pre-harvest Contractors → Wholesalers → Retailers → Consumers
- Farmers → Local Collectors → Wholesalers → Retailers → Consumers
- Direct marketing: Farmers → Consumers
Post-Harvest Chain Overview
- Farm: Harvesting and field handling.
- Pack-house: Cleaning, sorting, sanitizing, packaging, cooling, storage.
- Transport: Loading, unloading, stacking, protection.
- Market: Re-sorting, re-packing, storage.
- Processing: Drying, sauce production, fermentation.
Key Post-Harvest Procedures
- Harvesting
- Reception
- Pre-cooling
- Selection, Cleaning & Disinfection
- Drying
- Grading
- Other Treatments
- Packing & Packaging
- Storage
- Transport
Harvesting and Maturity
- Quality cannot be improved after harvest; harvest at optimum maturity.
- Harvesting time depends on intended use and market requirements.
- Harvest during cooler parts of the day to reduce heat load.
- Avoid harvesting during rain; if unavoidable, wash and dry before packaging.
Maturity Indices for Vegetables
- Days from fruit set
- Visual indicators (color, shape, external appearance)
- Texture and firmness
- Specific gravity, starch content, soluble solids
- Sugar-acid ratio, oil content, odor
Curing of Vegetables
- Technique for reducing water loss in hardy vegetables (e.g., onion, garlic, sweet potato).
- Involves drying under shade to heal wounds and toughen outer layers.
- Prevents decay and moisture loss during storage.
Cleaning and Washing
- Removes dust, dirt, and pathogens from produce surface.
- Methods: dry dusting, wet washing with clean water and mild detergent (0.1%).
- Washing duration: 3–5 minutes at room temperature (~27°C).
Sorting and Grading
- Sorting: Removal of diseased, damaged, or deformed produce.
- Grading: Categorization by size, weight, color, maturity, and quality.
- Improves market value and reduces spread of infection.
Packaging of Vegetables
- Protects produce from physical damage and contamination.
- Should be cost-effective, easy to handle, and suitable for transport.
- Reduces losses during marketing and storage.
- Materials: cartons, crates, baskets, plastic containers, etc.
Storage of Vegetables
- Different vegetables require specific storage conditions.
- Starchy vegetables: store at 15.5–21.1°C in dry locations.
- Most others: store at refrigerator temperatures (0–5°C).
- Keep away from ethylene-producing fruits to prevent premature ripening.
Temperature Management in Storage
- Temperature is critical for extending shelf life and reducing spoilage.
- Improper temperature causes chilling or heat injuries.
- Optimal temperature inhibits pathogen growth and delays senescence.
Respiration Rate and Perishability
- Vegetables have varying respiration rates affecting shelf life.
- High respiration rate: shorter shelf life (e.g., asparagus, mushrooms).
- Low respiration rate: longer shelf life (e.g., onions, potatoes).
Transportation of Vegetables
- Transport is a major factor in post-harvest losses.
- Produce should be transported quickly and efficiently.
- Proper packaging and loading are essential to minimize damage.
- Use refrigerated vehicles for long distances when possible.
Transport Equipment
- Refrigerated and non-refrigerated vehicles for highways.
- Containers for air, rail, and sea transport.
- Pallets for bulk handling.
- Manual transport: carts, wheelbarrows, animal-drawn vehicles for short distances.
Summary and Recommendations
- Post-harvest losses in vegetables can reach 20–50% between harvest and retail.
- Losses increase with more intermediaries in the marketing chain.
- Proper post-harvest technologies and timely operations minimize losses.
- Focus on harvesting at optimum maturity, cleaning, sorting, grading, packaging, storage, and transport.
Objective Questions
Q1. Which of the following is NOT a type of post-harvest loss?
A. Biological
B. Chemical
C. Mechanical
D. Genetic
Answer: D
Q2. What is the most effective tool for extending the shelf life of fresh horticultural commodities?
A. Washing
B. Temperature control
C. Packaging
D. Grading
Answer: B
Q3. Which vegetable is best stored at 15.5 - 21.1°C in a dry location?
A. Tomato
B. Potato
C. Broccoli
D. Spinach
Answer: B
Q4. Which of the following is a physiological cause of post-harvest loss?
A. Sprouting
B. Bruising
C. Rot
D. Chemical contamination
Answer: A
Q5. What is the recommended temperature for washing vegetables during post-harvest management?
A. 10°C
B. 27°C
C. 40°C
D. 5°C
Answer: B
Q6. Which post-harvest activity involves removing diseased, damaged, or deformed vegetables?
A. Grading
B. Sorting
C. Packaging
D. Curing
Answer: B
Q7. Which of the following is a correct marketing channel for vegetables?
A. Farmers - Consumers
B. Farmers - Retailers - Wholesalers - Consumers
C. Farmers - Processors - Wholesalers - Consumers
D. Farmers - Exporters - Retailers - Consumers
Answer: A
Q8. Which process is specifically intended to reduce water loss during storage of hardy vegetables like onion?
A. Washing
B. Curing
C. Grading
D. Trimming
Answer: B
Q9. What is a key effect of abnormal storage temperature on vegetables?
A. Increased sweetness
B. Chilling and heat injuries
C. Enhanced color
D. Reduced respiration rate
Answer: B
Q10. Which of the following is NOT a maturity index for vegetables?
A. Specific gravity
B. Oil content
C. Seed color
D. Lenticel number
Answer: C