This presentation provides a comprehensive overview of the advanced production technology of walnut (Juglans regia L.), emphasizing its botanical characteristics, ecological requirements, and commercial significance. Key aspects include origin and distribution, propagation methods, orchard management, varietal improvement, and plant protection strategies. The content integrates recent research and best practices to enhance productivity and sustainability in walnut cultivation.
Introduction & Importance
Walnut (Juglans regia L.) is a major temperate nut crop valued for its nutritional, economic, and ecological benefits.
Known as the ‘royal nut,’ it has historical significance in trade and mythology, with origins traced to Persia (Iran) and spread to Europe and beyond.
Walnut is a rich source of proteins, fats, minerals, and phytochemicals, notably omega-3 fatty acids, supporting brain health.
All parts of the walnut tree are utilized: nuts for food, oil for culinary and industrial uses, timber for furniture, and shells for abrasives and insecticide diluents.
Walnut cultivation contributes significantly to export earnings, especially in India, and is used for reclaiming degraded lands due to its robust root system.
Origin, Distribution & Systematics
Walnut’s center of origin is Southeast Europe and Western Asia, with fossil evidence suggesting ancient cultivation.
Major producers include China, Iran, USA, and Turkey; in India, Jammu & Kashmir leads production, followed by Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand.
The genus Juglans (family Juglandaceae) comprises about 21 species, divided into sections such as Rhysocaryon (black walnuts) and Juglans (J. regia).
Juglans regia is the primary commercial species, distinguished by hull dehiscence at maturity and high-quality nuts.
Other species like J. nigra (Eastern black walnut) and J. hindsii (Northern California black walnut) are important for rootstocks and timber.
Botanical Description
Walnut is a large, deciduous tree with aromatic, pinnately compound leaves and chambered pith in shoots.
Monoecious flowering habit: male (staminate) flowers in catkins on previous season’s growth; female (pistillate) flowers at shoot tips.
Fruit is a true nut (drupaceous nut), with an edible portion being the lobed cotyledons inside a hard shell and involucre (husk).
Exhibits allelopathic effects, suppressing weed growth beneath the canopy.
Growth follows a double sigmoid curve, with two rapid periods of fruit development interspersed by slower growth.
Ecological Requirements
Optimal altitude for commercial cultivation: 900–2500 m above sea level; superior nut quality at higher elevations but risk of frost above 2500 m.
Requires cool autumns for dormancy induction; tolerates -11°C in dormancy but is sensitive to late spring and early fall frosts.
Chilling requirement varies by cultivar (700–1500 hours below 7°C).
Prefers deep, well-drained, slightly acidic soils (pH 5.5–6.5) rich in organic matter; intolerant of waterlogging.
Annual rainfall or irrigation equivalent of 760–800 mm is necessary; shelter from strong winds is recommended.
Commercial Varieties
Major Indian varieties: CITH Walnut-1 to 10, Hamdan, Sulaiman, and selections like Govind and Roopa; international cultivars include Chandler, Hartley, Franquette, and Serr.
Varietal traits include nut size, shell thickness, kernel color, yield, and bearing habit (terminal vs. lateral).
Lateral bearing trait is associated with early and higher yields; CITH-W-121 is a notable Indian accession with this trait.
Interspecific hybrids (e.g., Paradox: J. hindsii × J. regia) are used as rootstocks for disease resistance and adaptability.
Selection of varieties with desirable traits (precocity, nut quality, disease resistance) is crucial for productivity improvement.
Propagation
Walnut is propagated by seeds (for rootstocks) and vegetative methods (grafting, budding) for true-to-type plants.
Common rootstocks: J. regia (Asia), J. hindsii, J. nigra, and Paradox hybrid (USA); choice depends on soil and disease resistance.
Vegetative propagation methods include cleft grafting, patch budding, and epicotyl grafting; success rates are improved under controlled humidity and temperature.
Recent advances: Epicotyl grafting with dwarf rootstocks and sawdust covering yields high success; omega and V-grafting methods enhance callusing and survival.
Micropropagation and hot water callusing techniques are being explored for mass propagation.
Planting & Layout
Recommended planting systems: square or quincunx, with pollinizer varieties every 8th row perpendicular to wind direction.
Spacing varies by rootstock: 12×12 m (seedlings), 10×10 m (J. regia grafted), 8×8 m (J. nigra grafted).
Pits are prepared based on soil type and filled with a mixture of farmyard manure and topsoil.
High-density planting (closer spacing) increases early yield and net returns, though dwarfing rootstocks are not yet widely used.
Planting is done in late dormant or early spring, followed by immediate irrigation.
Tree Architecture & Pruning
Walnut trees are trained to a modified central leader system with 5–6 main laterals.
Pruning is conducted in early spring to avoid excessive bleeding; selective thinning prevents overcrowding.
Bearing habit (terminal vs. lateral) influences tree structure and productivity; lateral bearing is linked to higher yields and precocity.
Cluster bearing genotypes (e.g., SN-1) have been identified, offering potential for increased productivity.
Peaches are sometimes interplanted for the first 10–15 years to utilize space and resources efficiently.
Flowering Physiology
Walnut is monoecious and dichogamous, with male and female flowers maturing at different times to promote cross-pollination.
Flowering period varies by cultivar and location; peak in mid-April to early May in northern India.
Pollen viability is low and stigma receptivity is brief, necessitating overlapping bloom periods or mixed cultivar planting for effective pollination.
Application of gibberellic acid (GA₃) can alter flowering patterns and increase flower numbers, especially in larger trees.
Pollen can be collected and stored at sub-zero temperatures to extend viability for artificial pollination.
Orchard Cultural Practices
Fertilizer application is based on tree age and leaf nutrient analysis; split applications of nitrogen are recommended for optimal uptake.
Intercropping with legumes and low-growing vegetables is feasible during the early years of orchard establishment.
Irrigation is essential during dry periods and critical growth stages, but overwatering should be avoided to prevent root diseases.
Weed control is achieved using herbicides like simazine and diuron, along with mulching to conserve moisture and suppress weeds.
Mulching is particularly important for young trees and after fertilizer application in mature orchards.
Harvesting & Handling of Fruit
Harvest when 80% of hulls have split and packing tissue turns brown (PTB stage); delay reduces nut quality and increases disease risk.
Harvesting involves manual collection or branch shaking, with multiple pickings over several weeks.
Post-harvest handling includes cleaning, washing, and drying nuts to 8% moisture to prevent mold and rancidity.
Grading is based on nut size and color; lighter kernels fetch higher market prices.
Proper storage at low temperature and humidity extends shelf life and maintains quality.
Walnut Plant Protection
Major diseases: walnut anthracnose (Gnomonia leptostyla), walnut blight (Xanthomonas campestris pv. juglandis), black line disease (cherry leaf roll virus), foot and root rot, and powdery mildew.
Integrated management includes sanitation, resistant varieties/rootstocks, chemical sprays (e.g., Bordeaux mixture, copper, carbendazim), and proper drainage.
Pest control strategies involve timely insecticide applications, pheromone traps, and destruction of infested fruits.
Reducing tree size through grafted trees, dwarfing rootstocks, and pruning facilitates pest management and harvesting.
Future Thrusts
Challenges include low productivity due to poor planting material, pollination issues, low tree density, long juvenile period, and susceptibility to pests and diseases.
Breeding and selection for lateral bearing, short stature, early bearing, improved nut quality, and disease resistance are priorities.
Adoption of advanced propagation techniques and high-density planting can enhance orchard profitability.
Integrated pest and disease management, along with climate-resilient practices, are essential for sustainable walnut production.
Continued research and extension support are needed to address emerging challenges and promote best practices among growers.
Objective Questions
Q1. Which walnut species is most commonly used as a rootstock in Asia due to its compatibility and resistance to crown rot disease?
A. Juglans regia
B. Juglans hindsii
C. Juglans nigra
D. Juglans microcarpa
Answer: A
Q2. Which method of walnut grafting resulted in the highest callused grafts and graft-take percentages according to Majd et al. (2018)?
A. Tongue grafting
B. Omega grafting
C. Saddle grafting
D. V grafting
Answer: B
Q3. What is the chromosome number of Juglans regia?
A. 2n = 28
B. 2n = 32
C. 2n = 24
D. 2n = 36
Answer: B
Q4. Which state in India contributes more than 85% of the total walnut production in the country?
A. Himachal Pradesh
B. Uttarakhand
C. Jammu & Kashmir
D. Arunachal Pradesh
Answer: C
Q5. Which walnut rootstock is most tolerant to salts in soil or irrigation and resistant to oak root fungus in California?
A. Juglans regia
B. Juglans nigra
C. Juglans hindsii
D. Juglans microcarpa
Answer: C
Q6. Which of the following is a classical example of delayed incompatibility in walnut, caused by a virus and characterized by a dark line between stock and scion?
A. Walnut blight
B. Black line formation
C. Foot and root rot
D. Powdery mildew
Answer: B
Q7. In walnut, which type of dichogamy is exhibited by the English walnut (Juglans regia)?
A. Protogyny only
B. Both protogyny and protoandry
C. Protoandry only
D. None of the above
Answer: C
Q8. According to the research by Chand et al. (2018), which accession was identified as the first indigenous Indian walnut with lateral bearing trait?
A. CITH Walnut-1
B. CITH-W-121 (IC-0622836)
C. Sulaiman
D. Hamdan
Answer: B
Q9. For maximum propagation efficiency in walnut epicotyl grafting, which combination is recommended based on Raufi et al. (2017)?
A. Standard rootstock + perlite cover
B. Dwarf rootstock + sawdust cover
C. Standard rootstock + coco-peat cover
D. Dwarf rootstock + polyethylene cover
Answer: B
Q10. Which disease of walnut is caused by Xanthomonas campestris pv. juglandis and is best controlled by spraying metallic copper?
A. Walnut anthracnose
B. Walnut blight
C. Powdery mildew
D. Foot and root rot
Answer: B
This presentation covers the advanced production technology of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), a globally significant vegetable crop. It details the origin, botanical characteristics, varietal selection, cultural practices, and integrated pest and disease management essential for maximizing yield and quality. The content is structured for academic and competitive exam preparation, emphasizing recent trends and scientific principles in tomato cultivation.
Basic Information & Introduction
Botanical name: Solanum lycopersicum
Family: Solanaceae
Chromosome number: 2n=24
Origin: Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia; domesticated in Mexico
Use high-yielding, disease-resistant varieties and hybrids
Adopt proper nursery, land, and nutrient management
Implement grafting and protected cultivation for stress-prone areas
Practice regular irrigation, mulching, and weed control
Monitor and manage pests and diseases using IPM
Harvest and store fruits at optimal maturity and conditions
Objective Questions
Q1. Which variety of tomato is specifically resistant to Tomato Leaf Curl Virus and bacterial wilt?
A. Arka Vardan
B. Arka Ananya
C. Pusa Rohini
D. Kashi Vishesh
Answer: B
Q2. What is the ideal temperature range for maximum lycopene production in tomato fruits?
A. 10-15°C
B. 18-20°C
C. 21-24°C
D. 27-30°C
Answer: C
Q3. Which physiological disorder in tomato is primarily caused by calcium deficiency?
A. Fruit cracking
B. Puffiness
C. Blossom end rot
D. Sun scald
Answer: C
Q4. Which of the following is a wild species of tomato resistant to salt?
A. S. pennellii
B. S. cheesmani
C. S. chilense
D. S. peruvianum
Answer: B
Q5. For nursery raising of hybrid tomato, what is the recommended seed rate per hectare?
A. 400-500g
B. 125-175g
C. 200-250g
D. 50-75g
Answer: B
Q6. Which training system is commonly used for tomato plants to maintain balance between vegetative growth and production?
A. Single stem
B. Two stem
C. Three stem
D. Four stem
Answer: B
Q7. Which chemical is recommended for pre-emergence weed control in tomato at 1.0 kg/ha?
A. Fluchloralin
B. Pendimethalin
C. Metribuzin
D. Glyphosate
Answer: B
Q8. Which hybrid tomato variety is resistant to root knot nematode?
A. Arka Meghali
B. Arka Vardan
C. Pusa Hybrid-1
D. Kashi Aman
Answer: B
Q9. What is the main cause of blotchy ripening in tomato fruits?
A. Boron deficiency
B. Calcium deficiency
C. Imbalance of nitrogen and potassium
D. High temperature
Answer: C
Q10. Which pest is managed by releasing Trichogramma at 1 lakh per hectare at 7-day intervals?
A. Thrips
B. Fruit borer
C. Pinworm
D. Leaf miner
Answer: B
Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) is a globally significant vegetable crop in the Solanaceae family, valued for its nutritional content and economic importance. This presentation covers the production technology of tomato, including climate and soil requirements, propagation, varieties, crop management, and major diseases and pests. Emphasis is placed on best practices for high yield and quality, relevant for competitive exams and academic study.
Introduction to Tomato
Scientific name: Solanum lycopersicum
Family: Solanaceae
Originated in western South America; domesticated in Central America
Chromosome number: 2n = 24 (corrected; not 26)
India ranks 2nd globally in tomato production
Botanical and Nutritional Aspects
Botanically, tomato fruit is classified as a berry
Rich in vitamins A, C, K and antioxidants like lycopene and lutein
Consumption helps reduce risk of cancer, supports eye health, and regulates blood pressure
Major Tomato Growing Regions
Top producers: China, India, USA, Turkey, Egypt
In India: Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat, Odisha, West Bengal, Chhattisgarh, Bihar, Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh
Propagation Methods
Tomato is propagated by seeds or vegetative methods
Vegetative propagation uses plant cuttings for true-to-type plants
Seed propagation is most common in commercial cultivation
Climate, Soil, and Rainfall Requirements
Warm season crop; optimal temperature: 21–24°C
Cannot tolerate frost or high humidity
Prefers deep, well-drained sandy loam soils (15–20 cm depth)
Requires low to moderate rainfall (approx. 194 mm during growing season)
Land Preparation and Planting
Land should be well-prepared, ridged, and free of weeds
Seed sowing: June–July (autumn-winter), November (spring-summer), March–April (hills)
Transplant seedlings at 75–90 x 45–60 cm spacing
Use healthy seedlings (10–12 inches tall)
Major Types and Varieties of Tomato
Types: Cherry, Grape, Roma, Beefsteak, Heirloom, Tomatoes on the vine, Green tomatoes
Popular varieties: Rashmi, Pusa Early Dwarf, Rupali, Sioux, Vaishali, Abhinav, Avishkar
Irrigation Management
Requires 1–2 inches of water per week
Drip irrigation preferred for transplanted tomatoes
Sprinkler irrigation for direct-seeded crops (early stages)
Furrow irrigation used after establishment
Manures and Fertilizers
Apply 20–25 t/ha well-rotted FYM/compost during land preparation
Recommended fertilizer dose: 75:40:25 kg N:P2O5:K2O per ha
Apply half N, full P, and half K as basal; remaining N and K as top dressing
Weed Management
Practices: crop rotation, cultivation, sanitation, proper field preparation
Circular lesions on fruit; centers turn tan; black spots on fruit
Management:
Avoid sprinkler irrigation during fruit ripening
Crop rotation with non-solanaceous crops
Black Mold Disease Pathogen: Alternaria spp. Symptoms:
Black or brown lesions on ripe fruit surface
Management:
Avoid wetting foliage; use fungicides if necessary
Colorado Potato Beetle Nature: Insect pest Symptoms:
Feeding damage to foliage; black and yellow striped beetle visible
Management:
Handpick adults and larvae; destroy in soapy water
Use Bacillus thuringiensis for larvae control
Aphids Nature: Insect pest Symptoms:
Yellowing and distortion of leaves
Management:
Use tolerant varieties; apply neem oil
Harvesting and Yield
First harvest: 60–70 days after transplanting (variety dependent)
Harvest by twisting fruit by hand or mechanically
Average yield: 20–25 t/ha; hybrids: up to 50–60 t/ha
Post-Harvest Handling and Storage
Store mature (yellow) tomatoes at 12–16°C (55–60°F)
Cold storage life: 3–4 weeks
Do not store below 4°C (40°F) to avoid chilling injury
Objective Questions
Q1. What is the scientific name of tomato?
A. Solanum tuberosum
B. Solanum lycopersicum
C. Lycopersicon esculentum
D. Solanum melongena
Answer: B
Q2. Which country is the largest producer of tomatoes?
A. India
B. USA
C. China
D. Turkey
Answer: C
Q3. What is the chromosome number of tomato?
A. 2n=24
B. 2n=26
C. 2n=28
D. 2n=32
Answer: B
Q4. Which irrigation method is commonly used for stand establishment of transplanted tomatoes?
A. Furrow irrigation
B. Drip irrigation
C. Flood irrigation
D. Basin irrigation
Answer: B
Q5. Which of the following is NOT a major type of tomato?
A. Cherry tomato
B. Roma tomato
C. Plum tomato
D. Beefsteak tomato
Answer: C
Q6. What is the recommended fertilizer dose (N:P2O5:K2O) per hectare for tomato?
A. 60:30:30
B. 75:40:25
C. 90:60:60
D. 50:25:25
Answer: B
Q7. Which disease is characterized by circular lesions on the fruit with tan centers in tomato?
A. Black mold disease
B. Anthracnose disease
C. Late blight
D. Fusarium wilt
Answer: B
Q8. What is the optimum temperature range for tomato cultivation?
A. 10-15°C
B. 15-18°C
C. 21-24°C
D. 28-32°C
Answer: C
Q9. Which pre-emergence herbicide is used for weed control in tomato?
A. Paraquat
B. Glyphosate
C. Metribuzin
D. Atrazine
Answer: C
Q10. What is the average yield per hectare for hybrid tomato varieties?
A. 10-15 t/ha
B. 20-25 t/ha
C. 30-40 t/ha
D. 50-60 t/ha
Answer: D
Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) is a globally important vegetable crop in the Solanaceae family, valued for its nutritional content and diverse uses. This topic covers the origin, botanical characteristics, varieties, cultivation practices, and disease and pest management essential for high-yield and quality tomato production. Understanding these aspects is crucial for students and professionals in horticulture and competitive agricultural exams.
Introduction and Origin
Tomato is a widely grown vegetable crop worldwide.
Remove affected plants, spot drench with carbendazim, rotate with non-host crops.
Bacterial Wilt (Ralstonia solanacearum)
Use resistant varieties, crop rotation with non-hosts.
Mosaic (TMV), Leaf Curl (ToLCV)
Use disease-free seed, vector control (imidacloprid, dimethoate), crop rotation.
Integrated Pest and Disease Management (IPDM)
Use resistant varieties and healthy seedlings.
Practice crop rotation and field sanitation.
Monitor pests/diseases regularly; use traps and biocontrol agents.
Apply chemicals judiciously, following recommended doses and intervals.
Summary
Tomato is a high-value crop with diverse uses and nutritional benefits.
Proper variety selection, climate, soil, and cultural practices are key for high yield.
Integrated management of pests, diseases, and physiological disorders ensures quality production.
Knowledge of post-harvest handling and storage extends shelf life and marketability.
Objective Questions
Q1. Which scientist is known as the "Father of Tomato"?
A. Dr. C. M. Rick
B. Jenkins
C. Linnaeus
D. Bailey
Answer: A
Q2. The red color in tomato fruits is primarily due to which pigment?
A. Carotenoid
B. Lycopene
C. Pro-lycopene
D. Chlorophyll
Answer: B
Q3. Which variety of tomato is resistant to bacterial wilt?
A. Arka Meghali
B. Arka Abha
C. Pusa Ruby
D. Nandi
Answer: B
Q4. What is the optimum temperature range for lycopene synthesis in tomato?
A. 10-15°C
B. 21-24°C
C. 27-30°C
D. 30-35°C
Answer: B
Q5. Which growth regulator is used to increase fruit set, earliness, and parthenocarpy in tomato?
A. IBA
B. 2,4-D
C. NAA
D. GA
Answer: B
Q6. Which physiological disorder in tomato is controlled by foliar spray of 0.5% calcium chloride?
A. Fruit cracking
B. Sun scald
C. Blossom end rot
D. Puffiness
Answer: C
Q7. Which of the following is a determinate tomato variety?
A. Pusa Divya
B. Arka Abha
C. NDT-1
D. Pusa Ruby
Answer: B
Q8. Which pest is managed by releasing Trichogramma @ 1 lakh/ha in tomato?
A. Whitefly
B. Fruit borer
C. Thrips
D. Pinworm
Answer: B
Q9. For protected cultivation, which type of tomato varieties are most suitable?
A. Determinate
B. Semi-determinate
C. Indeterminate
D. Dwarf
Answer: C
Q10. Which disease is controlled by drenching with Copper oxychloride 0.2% or Bordeaux mixture 1%?
A. Fusarium wilt
B. Early blight
C. Damping off
D. Mosaic
Answer: C
This presentation covers the production technology of apple (Malus domestica), an important temperate fruit crop. It includes taxonomy, origin, climatic and soil requirements, recommended varieties, major pests and diseases, and management practices. The content is structured for academic and exam preparation, emphasizing key aspects of apple cultivation. Important academic keywords: Malus domestica, chilling requirement, varieties, pest management, apple scab.
Introduction to Apple
Botanical name: Malus domestica; Family: Rosaceae
Origin: Central Asia, including Caucasus and Hindu-Kush Himalayan region
Chromosome number: 2n = 34, 51, 68 (x = 17)
Genus Malus has about 25 species
Importance and Distribution
Major temperate fruit crop, rich in carbohydrates, potassium, phosphorus, and calcium
Introduced in India in 1865 (Kullu Valley, Himachal Pradesh)
Commercially grown in Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand
Also cultivated in NE states and Nilgiri hills
India: ~2.8 lakh ha area, ~1.77 million tonnes production
Climatic and Soil Requirements
Requires 1000–1600 chilling hours; low-chill varieties need 500–800 hours
Optimal summer temperature: 21–24°C; pollination best at 18–22°C
Frost-free spring, mild summer, and 100–125 cm well-distributed rainfall ideal
Prefers deep, fertile, loamy soils with pH 6.0–6.5 and good drainage
Taxonomic Classification and Species
Family: Rosaceae; Genus: Malus
Important species: M. domestica (edible apple), M. floribunda (flowering crab), M. baccata (Siberian crab), M. coronaria (American crab), M. angustifolia (narrow-leaved crab)
Crab apples used as pollinizers and ornamentals
Recommended Varieties in India
Early: Irish Peach, Benoni, Tydeman’s Early Worcester, Mollies Delicious, Anna
Mid-season: Starking Delicious, Red Delicious, Rich-a-Red, Top Red, Scarlet Gala
Late: King Pippin, Golden Delicious, Red Fuji, Granny Smith, Mutsu
Spur types: Red Chief, Oregon Spur, Silver Spur, Well Spur
This presentation covers the comprehensive production technology of brinjal (Solanum melongena), including its botany, varieties, agronomic practices, physiological disorders, and pest and disease management. Emphasis is placed on improved cultivation methods, varietal selection, and integrated crop management for optimal yield and quality. Key aspects such as grafting, ratooning, and biotechnological advances are also discussed. Important academic keywords: Solanaceae, varieties, grafting, Bt brinjal, integrated management.
Introduction to Brinjal (Solanum melongena)
Common names: Brinjal, Eggplant, Aubergine
Family: Solanaceae; Chromosome number: 2n=24
Origin: Indo-Burma region; major cultivation in Asia
Day-neutral, annual herbaceous plant
Rich in vitamins, minerals, and phytonutrients
Botanical Features
Plant: Erect, well-branched, large lobed leaves
Inflorescence: Solitary or clusters (cymose)
Flowers: Actinomorphic, hermaphrodite, hypogynous
Fruit: Berry; variable shape, size, and color
Heterostyly: Four flower types based on style length
Taxonomy and Species Diversity
Main species: Solanum melongena
Related species: S. incanum, S. integrifolium, S. nigrum, S. torvum, S. xanthocarpum