Tag: production technology

• Botanical name: Solanum lycopersicum
• Family: Solanaceae
• Chromosome number: 2n=24
• Origin: Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia; domesticated in Mexico
• Edible part: Whole fruit (fleshy berry)
• Pollination: Mainly self-pollinated, hermaphrodite flowers

• First recorded in 1554, South America
• Spread from Mexico to Europe and Asia
• Introduced to India in 1828 by British
• Probable ancestor: Solanum lycopersicum var. cerasiformae (cherry tomato)
• Father of tomato research: Dr. C. M. Rick

• Global area: ~5.16 million ha; production: ~186 million tonnes (2023)
• Top producers: China, India, Turkey, USA, Egypt
• India: 0.88 million ha; 21 million tonnes; productivity: 23.8 t/ha
• Major Indian states: Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Gujarat
• Export hubs: Pune, Bangalore, Nasik, Amaravati

• Second most important vegetable globally after potato
• Rich in ascorbic acid (31 mg/100g), lycopene, carotenoids
• Used fresh and processed (soup, sauce, ketchup, puree, paste)
• Health benefits: antioxidant, anticancer, digestive aid
• Tomato seed oil content: ~24%

• Annual herb with tap root system (depth >50 cm)
• Stem: erect, solid, hairy, glandular; height 2–4 m
• Leaves: compound, pinnatifid, irregularly toothed
• Flowers: small, yellow, borne in raceme cymes
• Fruit: fleshy berry, 2–15 cm diameter, color varies (green, yellow, red)
• Seeds: numerous, kidney-shaped, hairy

• By growth habit: Determinate (bushy, self-topping, early), Indeterminate (erect, late, needs staking)
• By fruit shape: Round, cherry, pear, oblate, etc.
• By subgenus (Muller, 1940): Eulycopersicon (red, self-compatible), Eriolycopersicon (green, wild, self-incompatible)

• Selection criteria: yield, disease resistance, fruit quality, shelf life
• IARI: Pusa Rohini, Pusa Ruby, Pusa Sadabahar, Pusa Uphar
• IIHR: Arka Vikas, Arka Abha, Arka Rakshak (disease resistant)
• IIVR: Kashi Amrit, Kashi Hemant, Kashi Aman (ToLCV resistant)
• Hybrids: Pusa Hybrid 1, Arka Vardan, Arka Meghali
• Processing: Punjab Chhuhara, Roma, Pusa Gaurav
• Protected cultivation: Indeterminate types (e.g., Pusa Ruby, Arka Abha)

• Warm season, day-neutral crop
• Optimum temperature: 20–24°C (growth), 15–20°C (fruit set)
• Red color (lycopene) best at 21–24°C; reduced above 27°C
• Soil: well-drained sandy loam to clay loam, pH 6.0–7.0
• Moderately tolerant to acid soils (pH 5.5)

• Raised beds (15 cm), 3 m x 1 m, sandy loam with organic matter
• Seed rate: OPV 400–500 g/ha; Hybrid 125–175 g/ha
• Seed treatment: Captan/Thiram 2 g/kg
• Bed drenching: Captan or copper oxychloride
• Harden seedlings by reducing water before transplanting
• Transplant 25–30 day old seedlings with 5–6 true leaves

• Resistance to soil-borne diseases and pests
• Tolerance to abiotic stresses (drought, salinity, temperature)
• Increased yield and fruit quality

Examples:

• Brimato: Tomato scion on brinjal rootstock (bacterial wilt resistance)
• Pomato: Tomato scion on potato rootstock (dual harvest)

• Deep ploughing (20–30 cm), followed by harrowing for fine tilth
• Soil solarization (optional) for pest and disease control
• Spacing: Determinate 60 x 45 cm; Indeterminate 90 x 60 cm
• Transplanting: Kharif (July), Rabi (Oct–Nov), Summer (Feb–March)

• FYM: 350 q/ha; N:P:K for OPV: 120:80:100 kg/ha; Hybrid: 200:100:120 kg/ha
• Apply ½ N and all P, K, FYM at planting; rest N as top dressing
• Mulching (25 micron) increases yield by 45–50%
• Drip irrigation saves water (up to 42%) and increases yield (up to 60%)
• Water requirement: 60 L/kg (open field), 4–22 L/kg (greenhouse)

• Weeding: 2 hand hoeings + earthing up
• Pre-emergence herbicides: metribuzin, fluchloralin, pendimethalin
• Staking: improves yield and fruit quality in indeterminate types
• Training: single, two, or three stem systems
• Pruning: remove lateral suckers, maintain 2 stems, every 8–10 days

• Harvest at breaker or half-red stage; first harvest at 70–85 days after transplanting
• Grading by color, size, maturity (Super A, Super, Fancy, Commercial)
• Storage: 12–15°C, 85–90% RH; mature green: up to 30 days, ripe: 10 days
• Yield: OPV 200–350 q/ha; Hybrid 600–750 q/ha

• Causes: irregular irrigation, moisture stress, boron deficiency
• Control: regular irrigation, borax spray, resistant varieties

Blossom End Rot

• Caused by calcium deficiency
• Control: spray CaCl₂ 0.5%, balanced irrigation

Puffiness

• Causes: poor fertilization, high N, high temp
• Control: 4-CPA/CPPU spray, balanced nutrition

Sun Scald

• Due to fruit exposure; avoid excessive pruning in summer

Blotchy Ripening, Cat Face, Golden Flakes

• Due to nutrient imbalance, abnormal growth conditions

• Yellow sticky traps, Chrysoperla release, methyl demeton/dimethoate spray

Whitefly (Bemisia tabaci)

• Remove infected plants, sticky traps, carbofuran, dimethoate/malathion spray

Leaf Miner (Liriomyza trifolii)

• Destroy mined leaves, NSKE 5% spray

Pinworm (Tuta absoluta)

• Pheromone traps, healthy seedlings, neem/Flubendiamide/Indoxacarb spray

Fruit Borer (Helicoverpa armigera)

• Trap crops, pheromone traps, Trichogramma release, Bt spray

• Raised beds, seed treatment (Trichoderma/Thiram), copper oxychloride drench

Early Blight (Alternaria solani)

• Remove debris, crop rotation, Mancozeb spray

Late Blight (Phytophthora infestans)

• Remove infected plants, crop rotation, copper oxychloride/Bordeaux mixture

Fusarium Wilt (Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. lycopersici)

• Remove infected plants, Carbendazim drench, crop rotation

Bacterial Wilt (Ralstonia solanacearum)

• Crop rotation, resistant varieties (Arka Abha, Arka Rakshak)

Mosaic (TMV)

• Disease-free seed, crop rotation, trisodium phosphate seed soak, vector control

Leaf Curl (ToLCV)

• Sticky traps, barrier crops, Imidacloprid/Dimethoate spray

• Use high-yielding, disease-resistant varieties and hybrids
• Adopt proper nursery, land, and nutrient management
• Implement grafting and protected cultivation for stress-prone areas
• Practice regular irrigation, mulching, and weed control
• Monitor and manage pests and diseases using IPM
• Harvest and store fruits at optimal maturity and conditions

• Scientific name: Solanum lycopersicum
• Family: Solanaceae
• Originated in western South America; domesticated in Central America
• Chromosome number: 2n = 24 (corrected; not 26)
• India ranks 2nd globally in tomato production

• Botanically, tomato fruit is classified as a berry
• Rich in vitamins A, C, K and antioxidants like lycopene and lutein
• Consumption helps reduce risk of cancer, supports eye health, and regulates blood pressure

• Top producers: China, India, USA, Turkey, Egypt
• In India: Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat, Odisha, West Bengal, Chhattisgarh, Bihar, Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh

• Tomato is propagated by seeds or vegetative methods
• Vegetative propagation uses plant cuttings for true-to-type plants
• Seed propagation is most common in commercial cultivation

• Warm season crop; optimal temperature: 21–24°C
• Cannot tolerate frost or high humidity
• Prefers deep, well-drained sandy loam soils (15–20 cm depth)
• Requires low to moderate rainfall (approx. 194 mm during growing season)

• Land should be well-prepared, ridged, and free of weeds
• Seed sowing: June–July (autumn-winter), November (spring-summer), March–April (hills)
• Transplant seedlings at 75–90 x 45–60 cm spacing
• Use healthy seedlings (10–12 inches tall)

• Types: Cherry, Grape, Roma, Beefsteak, Heirloom, Tomatoes on the vine, Green tomatoes
• Popular varieties: Rashmi, Pusa Early Dwarf, Rupali, Sioux, Vaishali, Abhinav, Avishkar

• Requires 1–2 inches of water per week
• Drip irrigation preferred for transplanted tomatoes
• Sprinkler irrigation for direct-seeded crops (early stages)
• Furrow irrigation used after establishment

• Apply 20–25 t/ha well-rotted FYM/compost during land preparation
• Recommended fertilizer dose: 75:40:25 kg N:P2O5:K2O per ha
• Apply half N, full P, and half K as basal; remaining N and K as top dressing

• Practices: crop rotation, cultivation, sanitation, proper field preparation
• Pre-emergence herbicide: Metribuzin
• Post-emergence herbicide: Paraquat

• Circular lesions on fruit; centers turn tan; black spots on fruit

Management:

• Avoid sprinkler irrigation during fruit ripening
• Crop rotation with non-solanaceous crops

Black Mold Disease
Pathogen: Alternaria spp.
Symptoms:

• Black or brown lesions on ripe fruit surface

Management:

• Avoid wetting foliage; use fungicides if necessary

Colorado Potato Beetle
Nature: Insect pest
Symptoms:

• Feeding damage to foliage; black and yellow striped beetle visible

Management:

• Handpick adults and larvae; destroy in soapy water
• Use Bacillus thuringiensis for larvae control

Aphids
Nature: Insect pest
Symptoms:

• Yellowing and distortion of leaves

Management:

• Use tolerant varieties; apply neem oil

• First harvest: 60–70 days after transplanting (variety dependent)
• Harvest by twisting fruit by hand or mechanically
• Average yield: 20–25 t/ha; hybrids: up to 50–60 t/ha

• Store mature (yellow) tomatoes at 12–16°C (55–60°F)
• Cold storage life: 3–4 weeks
• Do not store below 4°C (40°F) to avoid chilling injury

• Tomato is a widely grown vegetable crop worldwide.
• Botanical name: Solanum lycopersicum; Family: Solanaceae; Chromosome number: 2n=24.
• Originated in the Andean region (Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia); domesticated in Mexico.
• Introduced to India by the British in 1828.

• Annual herb with a tap root system (up to 50 cm deep).
• Stem: Erect, solid, hairy, glandular; height 2–4 m.
• Leaves: Compound, pinnatifid, irregularly toothed margins.
• Flowers: Small, yellow, borne in racemes; perfect and hypogynous.
• Fruit: Fleshy berry, globular to oblate, 2–15 cm diameter; color varies from green to red/yellow/orange.
• Seeds: Numerous, kidney-shaped, hairy, light brown.

• Determinate: Bushy, self-topping, early maturity, staking not required.
• Indeterminate: Erect, continuous growth, late maturity, staking required.

Botanical Classification (Bailey, 1949):

• L. esculentum var. commune – Common round fruited
• L. esculentum var. grandifolium – Potato-leaved
• L. esculentum var. cerasiformae – Cherry tomato
• L. esculentum var. validum – Upright tomato
• L. esculentum var. pyriformae – Pear-shaped tomato

• Rich in vitamins (A, B, C), minerals (iron, phosphorus, calcium), amino acids, sugars, and dietary fiber.
• Ascorbic acid: 16–65 mg/100g; total sugars: ~2.5% in ripe fruit.
• Used fresh, in salads, pickles, preserves, and processed products (puree, paste, ketchup, sauce, juice).
• Contains lycopene (red pigment), carotenoids (yellow), and tomatine (alkaloid).

• India: ~8.8 lakh ha, 182 lakh tonnes, productivity ~20.7 t/ha.
• Leading states: Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Gujarat.
• Major export areas: Pune, Bangalore, Nasik, Amaravati.
• Main importers: Pakistan, UAE, Bangladesh, Nepal, Oman.

• High yield, disease resistance, fruit quality, shelf life, and TSS.

Popular Varieties:

• Pusa Ruby, Arka Vikas, Arka Meghali, Arka Saurabh, Arka Abha, Pusa Early Dwarf, PKM-1, Hisar Anmol, Pant Bahar.

Hybrids:

• Arka Rakshak, Arka Samrat, Arka Shreshta, Pusa Divya, Rashmi, Rupali, IAHS-88.2.

Special Traits:

• Resistant to ToLCV: Nandi, Sankranti, Vaibhav, Arka Rakshak.
• Resistant to bacterial wilt: Arka Alok, Arka Abha, Arka Shreshta.

• Warm season crop; optimum temperature: 20–24°C.
• Fruit set best at 15–20°C; lycopene synthesis optimal at 21–24°C.
• Grows in all soils; sandy loam preferred for early crop, heavy soils for high yield.
• Soil pH: 6.0–7.0; moderately tolerant to acidic soils (pH 5.5).

• Seed rate: OPV 300–400 g/ha; Hybrids 125–175 g/ha.
• Seed treatment: Captan/Thiram @ 2 g/kg seed.
• Nursery: Raised beds, protected with shade net, use sterilized cocopeat in protrays.
• Seedlings ready in 25–30 days; hardened before transplanting.
• Transplanting at 4–5 weeks; spacing: 60 × 45 cm.

• Apply FYM @ 25 t/ha and neem cake @ 100 kg/ha before last ploughing.
• Raised beds (120 cm width) for better drainage.
• Mulching (plastic or organic) conserves moisture, controls weeds, and regulates soil temperature.
• Plastic mulch (25 micron) can increase yield by 45–50%.

• Total water requirement: 600–700 mm/ha.
• Drip irrigation is efficient, saves water (up to 42%), and increases yield (up to 60%).
• Frequent irrigation essential, especially during flowering and fruiting.
• Balanced fertilization with NPK and micronutrients is crucial.

• Weeding: Two hand hoeings and earthing up recommended.
• Pre-emergence herbicides: Metribuzin (0.35 kg/ha), Pendimethalin (1.0 kg/ha).
• Staking and training improve fruit quality and reduce disease incidence (especially for indeterminate types).
• Pruning and desuckering maintain balance between vegetative growth and fruiting.

• Ethephon (200–500 mg/L): Flower induction, rooting.
• 2,4-D (2–5 mg/L): Increases fruit set, induces parthenocarpy.
• GA3 (50–100 mg/L): Promotes shoot elongation and yield.
• PCPA (50 mg/L): Enhances fruit set under adverse conditions.

• First harvest: 60–85 days after transplanting, depending on variety.
• Harvest stages: Immature green, mature green, breaker, pink, hard ripe, overripe.
• Grading based on color, size, and maturity; BIS grades: Super A, Super, Fancy, Commercial.
• Storage: 12–15°C, 85–90% RH; mature green fruits can be stored up to 30 days.

• Open field: 50 t/ha; Greenhouse: up to 150 t/ha (Singh et al., 2013).
• Yield depends on variety, management, and environmental conditions.

• Brown, sunken lesions at blossom end; due to calcium deficiency and irregular watering.

Fruit Cracking

• Radial/concentric cracks; caused by irregular irrigation, boron deficiency, genetic factors.

Sun Scald

• Blistered, water-soaked areas on exposed fruits; aggravated by defoliation and pruning.

Puffiness

• Partially filled, light fruits; due to poor fertilization, high temperature, or moisture.

Cat Face

• Distorted blossom end with ridges and furrows; linked to low temperature during flowering.

• Regular irrigation and balanced fertilization (especially calcium and boron).
• Avoid excessive pruning and staking during hot periods.
• Grow resistant/tolerant varieties for specific disorders.
• Apply foliar sprays: CaCl2 (0.5%), borax (0.3–0.4%) as needed.

• Use yellow sticky traps, pheromone traps, and biological control (Chrysoperla, Trichogramma).
• Spray recommended insecticides (e.g., dimethoate, malathion, neem formulations) as per guidelines.
• Practice crop rotation and destruction of infested plant parts.

• Use raised beds, seed treatment with Trichoderma/Thiram, drench with copper oxychloride.

Early Blight (Alternaria solani)

• Remove debris, crop rotation, spray Mancozeb 0.2%.

Late Blight (Phytophthora infestans)

• Remove affected plants, crop rotation, drench with copper oxychloride/Bordeaux mixture.

Fusarium Wilt (Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. lycopersici)

• Remove affected plants, spot drench with carbendazim, rotate with non-host crops.

Bacterial Wilt (Ralstonia solanacearum)

• Use resistant varieties, crop rotation with non-hosts.

Mosaic (TMV), Leaf Curl (ToLCV)

• Use disease-free seed, vector control (imidacloprid, dimethoate), crop rotation.

• Use resistant varieties and healthy seedlings.
• Practice crop rotation and field sanitation.
• Monitor pests/diseases regularly; use traps and biocontrol agents.
• Apply chemicals judiciously, following recommended doses and intervals.

• Tomato is a high-value crop with diverse uses and nutritional benefits.
• Proper variety selection, climate, soil, and cultural practices are key for high yield.
• Integrated management of pests, diseases, and physiological disorders ensures quality production.
• Knowledge of post-harvest handling and storage extends shelf life and marketability.

• Botanical name: Malus domestica; Family: Rosaceae
• Origin: Central Asia, including Caucasus and Hindu-Kush Himalayan region
• Chromosome number: 2n = 34, 51, 68 (x = 17)
• Genus Malus has about 25 species

• Major temperate fruit crop, rich in carbohydrates, potassium, phosphorus, and calcium
• Introduced in India in 1865 (Kullu Valley, Himachal Pradesh)
• Commercially grown in Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand
• Also cultivated in NE states and Nilgiri hills
• India: ~2.8 lakh ha area, ~1.77 million tonnes production

• Requires 1000–1600 chilling hours; low-chill varieties need 500–800 hours
• Optimal summer temperature: 21–24°C; pollination best at 18–22°C
• Frost-free spring, mild summer, and 100–125 cm well-distributed rainfall ideal
• Prefers deep, fertile, loamy soils with pH 6.0–6.5 and good drainage

• Family: Rosaceae; Genus: Malus
• Important species: M. domestica (edible apple), M. floribunda (flowering crab), M. baccata (Siberian crab), M. coronaria (American crab), M. angustifolia (narrow-leaved crab)
• Crab apples used as pollinizers and ornamentals

• Early: Irish Peach, Benoni, Tydeman’s Early Worcester, Mollies Delicious, Anna
• Mid-season: Starking Delicious, Red Delicious, Rich-a-Red, Top Red, Scarlet Gala
• Late: King Pippin, Golden Delicious, Red Fuji, Granny Smith, Mutsu
• Spur types: Red Chief, Oregon Spur, Silver Spur, Well Spur
• Low-chill: Michal, Schlomit, Anna, Vered, Tropical Beauty

• Red Delicious: Large, oblong-conical, greenish-yellow with red streaks, ripens August
• Starking Delicious: Limb sport of Red Delicious, large, conical, yellow with red stripes
• Fuji: Pink speckled flush, crisp, juicy, late-maturing
• Black Diamond: Rare, purple skin, grown at high altitude (Tibet)
• Mutsu: Cross of Golden Delicious × Indo, large, green to yellow, late, good pollinizer

• Pollinizers: Golden Delicious, Red Gold, Tydeman’s Early Worcester, Granny Smith, Winter Banana
• Flowering crabs (e.g., Malus floribunda) also used as pollinizers
• Colour sports: Red Chief, Oregon Spur, Super Chief, Vance Delicious, Top Red

• Scientific name: Quadraspidiotus perniciosus
• Polyphagous, sucks sap from aerial parts, reduces vigour and fruit quality
• Symptoms: Grey overlapping scales on bark, poor fruit set
• Management: Spray 2% dormant oil or 1.5% summer oil at appropriate stages; 0.04% chlorpyriphos after petal fall

• Scientific name: Eriosoma lanigerum
• Colonies form white woolly masses on aerial parts and roots
• Damage: Sap sucking, gall formation, stunted growth, reduced fruit set
• Management: Spray 0.04% chlorpyriphos in May–June and October; use resistant rootstocks (Malling Merton series)

• Pathogen: Venturia inaequalis
• Symptoms: Olive green to black spots on leaves and fruits, leaf curling, fruit cracking
• Management: Scheduled sprays of dodine, mancozeb, carbendazim, zineb at key growth stages; 5% urea post-harvest

• Apple trees start bearing from 4th year onwards
• Maturity: Change in ground colour, seed colour, and ease of fruit detachment
• Harvesting time depends on variety and region
• Average yield: 10–20 kg/tree/year in well-managed orchards

• Select suitable varieties and pollinizers for region and climate
• Ensure proper chilling, soil, and water management
• Implement regular pest and disease monitoring and control
• Follow recommended harvesting and post-harvest practices for quality fruit

• Common names: Brinjal, Eggplant, Aubergine
• Family: Solanaceae; Chromosome number: 2n=24
• Origin: Indo-Burma region; major cultivation in Asia
• Day-neutral, annual herbaceous plant
• Rich in vitamins, minerals, and phytonutrients

• Plant: Erect, well-branched, large lobed leaves
• Inflorescence: Solitary or clusters (cymose)
• Flowers: Actinomorphic, hermaphrodite, hypogynous
• Fruit: Berry; variable shape, size, and color
• Heterostyly: Four flower types based on style length

• Main species: Solanum melongena
• Related species: S. incanum, S. integrifolium, S. nigrum, S. torvum, S. xanthocarpum
• Botanical varieties: esculentum (round), serpentinum (long), depressum (dwarf)
• Wild relatives offer resistance to diseases and pests

• Origin: Bengal plains (India), Indo-Burma region
• Major producers: China (1st), India (2nd)
• Leading Indian states: West Bengal, Odisha, Gujarat, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh
• Area (India, 2018-19): 0.72 million ha; Production: 12.68 million tonnes

• Rich in Vitamin B, C, iodine, copper, iron, fiber
• Contains solasodine (glycoalkaloid) responsible for bitterness
• PUFA (linoleic, linolenic acids) aid cholesterol reduction
• Varietal differences in nutrient content (e.g., purple: copper, green: iron)

• Soil: Well-drained, fertile sandy-loam preferred; pH 5.5–6.6
• Grows on light sand to heavy clay soils
• Climate: Warm, frost-sensitive; optimal temperature 21–27°C
• Poor growth and fruiting at low temperatures

• Wide variation in fruit shape, color, and size
• Popular varieties: Pusa Purple Long, Pusa Purple Round, Arka Sheel, Manjari Gota, MDU 1, CO 2
• Hybrids: Arka Navneet, Pant Brinjal Hybrid 1, Co BH 1
• Resistant/tolerant types: Bacterial wilt, shoot and fruit borer, little leaf

• Sowing time varies by region; main seasons: June–July, November
• Seed rate: Varieties 400 g/ha; Hybrids 150–200 g/ha
• Spacing: 45×45 cm (dwarf) to 90×90 cm (vigorous types)
• Seed treatment: Trichoderma viride, Azospirillum
• Nursery: Raised beds, shade net, cocopeat, neem cake, biofertilizers

• Rootstock: Solanum torvum commonly used
• Advantages: Nematode and root rot resistance, higher yield, extended cropping
• Ratooning possible after pruning

• Brinjal fits well in crop rotations and intercropping
• Leafy vegetables (spinach, amaranth) and root crops (carrot, radish) can be grown with brinjal

• Basal dose (varieties): FYM 25 t/ha, NPK 50:50:30 kg/ha
• Basal dose (hybrids): FYM 25 t/ha, NPK 100:150:100 kg/ha
• Top dressing: 50–100 kg N/ha at 30 days after planting
• Micronutrients (Cu, Zn, Mn) enhance flowering and fruiting

• Regular irrigation essential, especially during flowering and fruit set
• Weekly intervals after establishment
• Drip irrigation saves water and controls weeds
• Keep soil moist during frost risk

• 3–4 hoeings and weedings for good growth
• Earthing up essential on ridges
• Orbanche sp. (root parasite) is a major weed
• Pre-plant herbicides: Fluchloralin
• Mulching (black LDPE, Sarkanda grass) conserves moisture and suppresses weeds

• 2,4-D (2 ppm) at flowering increases fruit set and yield
• NAA, PCPA, 4-CPA promote fruit set and development
• Root-dipping in GA3 + ascorbic acid advances flowering
• Mixtalol spray enhances yield in some cultivars

• Calyx withering: Occurs mid-February to mid-April; linked to high Ca and nitrate
• Poor fruit set: Due to prevalence of short/pseudo-short styled flowers
• Control: 2 ppm 2,4-D or 60 ppm NAA at flowering

• Harvest at immature, tender stage with glossy appearance
• First picking: 120–130 days after sowing
• Harvest interval: 8–10 days
• Yield: 20–40 t/ha (open-pollinated), 40–80 t/ha (hybrids)

• Shoot and fruit borer: Major pest; control with insecticides (Carbaryl, Monocrotophos)
• Epilachna beetle, mealy bug, leaf hopper (vector for little leaf)
• Diseases: Early blight, bacterial wilt, little leaf, mosaic virus
• Integrated management: Resistant varieties, rouging, vector control

• Bt brinjal: Transgenic, contains cry1Ac gene for borer resistance
• Developed using Agrobacterium-mediated transformation
• Banned in India since 2010
• Brimato: Grafting brinjal and tomato for dual harvest (IIVR, Varanasi)

• Wider spacing (1 m x 1 m) and 100% RDF optimize yield and fruit size
• Lower fertigation (75% RDF) reduces borer incidence
• Ratooning: Cutting at 10–15 cm promotes rejuvenation and extended yield

• Select suitable varieties/hybrids for local conditions
• Adopt recommended agronomic and nutrient practices
• Use grafting and resistant varieties for pest/disease management
• Implement integrated weed, water, and pest management
• Utilize advances in biotechnology and crop management for higher productivity