Tag: soil management

• Sapota (Manilkara achras) is a tropical fruit introduced from Central America, widely cultivated in India.
• Commonly known as sapodilla or chiku, it belongs to the family Sapotaceae.
• Fruits are recommended for patients with tuberculosis and children with primary complex due to their nutritional value.
• Offers high economic returns, even under marginal land and low-input conditions.

• Grows well from sea level up to 1200 m altitude, preferring warm, moist climates.
• Optimal temperature range: 11°C to 34°C; annual rainfall: 1250–2500 mm.
• Best suited to coastal climates but adaptable to both dry and humid regions.
• Prefers deep, well-drained, porous soils such as alluvium, sandy loams, red laterites, and medium black soils.
• Tolerates moderate soil and irrigation water salinity.

• Propagation is mainly through grafting onto Manilkara hexandra (Pala) rootstock.
• Planting season: June to December; recommended spacing: 8 x 8 m (standard), 8 x 4 m (high density).
• Pits of 1 m³ are prepared and filled with topsoil, 10 kg FYM, 1 kg neem cake, and 100 g lindane (1.3%).
• Grafts are planted with the graft union at least 15 cm above ground and staked for support.

• Immediate and regular irrigation is crucial after planting; water copiously post-planting, then every 10 days until establishment.
• Annual application of FYM and NPK fertilizers, increasing with tree age; mature trees (6th year onwards) require 50 kg FYM, 1 kg N, 1 kg P, and 1.5 kg K per tree.
• Fertilizers should be applied in September–October, 45 cm from the trunk, and incorporated into the soil up to the leaf drip line.

• Regular removal of rootstock sprouts, water shoots, criss-cross, and lower branches is essential for healthy growth.
• Legumes and short-duration vegetable crops can be intercropped during the pre-bearing stage to improve soil fertility and income.

• Leaf webber: Controlled by spraying phosalone at 2 ml/liter.
• Hairy caterpillars: Managed with endosulfan at 2 ml/liter (note: endosulfan use is restricted in many countries; safer alternatives are recommended).
• Budworm: Controlled by phosalone spray at 2 ml/liter.
• Sooty mould: Treated by spraying a 5% solution of boiled maida or starch (1 kg in 20 liters water).

• Fruits are ready for harvest when dull brown and the skin beneath is lighter in color; mature fruits lose brown scaly material and have reduced latex.
• Harvesting is done by hand picking; main seasons are February–June and September–October.
• Ripening is accelerated by placing fruits in airtight chambers with 5000 ppm Ethrel and 10 g NaOH pellets.
• Yield starts from the third year, reaching 20–25 t/ha/year in mature orchards.

• Papaya (Carica papaya L.) belongs to the family Caricaceae and has a chromosome number of 2n=18.
• Native to Tropical America, papaya was introduced to India in the 18th century and is now widely cultivated in tropical and subtropical regions.
• Major producing states in India include Bihar, Assam, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, and Andhra Pradesh, with a cultivation area of approximately 34,000 ha.
• Papaya is valued for its high vitamin A content (2000 IU/100g) and is consumed fresh or processed into products like jam, jelly, and nectar.
• The fruit is a significant source of the proteolytic enzyme papain, which has diverse applications in medicine and industry.

• Papaya plants exhibit dioecious, hermaphrodite, and gynodioecious sex forms, influencing fruit set and orchard management.
• Dioecious types have separate male and female plants, while hermaphrodite and gynodioecious types bear both flower types on the same plant.
• Male flowers are borne on long panicles; female flowers are solitary and larger, with a prominent ovary.
• Fruit morphology varies: globular from female flowers and elongated from bisexual flowers.
• Sex expression is influenced by environmental factors (temperature, day length) and growth regulators (e.g., GA, ethrel, SADH, phosphon-D).

• Papaya thrives best in deep, well-drained loamy soils with uniform texture up to 1.8 m depth.
• Good drainage is essential; even brief water stagnation can cause collar-rot disease.
• Optimal temperature range is 35–38°C; papaya is sensitive to frost and extreme heat.
• Windbreaks are recommended in areas prone to strong winds to prevent tree damage.
• Regions with mild temperatures and low incidence of viral diseases, such as Tamil Nadu, are ideal for year-round cultivation.

• Papaya is primarily propagated by seeds, which are collected from mature, healthy fruits and cleaned before sowing.
• Seedlings are raised in nursery beds or polythene bags; the latter method produces more vigorous plants.
• For dioecious varieties, 2–3 seedlings per pit are planted to ensure sufficient female plants; excess males are removed after sex identification.
• Planting is done in pits of 45 x 45 x 45 cm at 1.8 x 1.8 m spacing, accommodating about 3000 plants/ha.
• The best planting time coincides with the onset of the South-West monsoon or during mild weather periods.

• Papaya requires regular and balanced fertilization due to its rapid growth and continuous fruiting habit.
• Recommended nutrient application includes 10 kg FYM/plant as basal and 50 g each of N, P, and K per plant bimonthly, or 250 g N, 250 g P2O5, and 500 g K2O per plant/year in split doses.
• Peak nutrient uptake occurs between flowering and harvesting stages.
• Regular irrigation is essential, typically every 8–10 days, but waterlogging must be avoided to prevent root diseases.
• Intercropping with short-duration vegetables is possible during the pre-bearing stage.

• Fruits mature 12–14 months after planting, with continuous cropping possible for up to 2 years.
• Harvesting is done when fruits change from green to yellowish-green, using careful hand picking to avoid damage.
• Average yield per tree ranges from 50 to 100 fruits; high-yielding varieties can produce 100–160 t/ha.
• Fruits for local markets are stored in straw layers; for distant transport, they are packed in straw-lined bamboo baskets.
• Yield and fruit quality depend on the proportion of female and hermaphrodite trees in the orchard.

• Papain is a proteolytic enzyme extracted from the latex of unripe, fully developed green papaya fruits.
• Latex is collected by making shallow incisions on the fruit surface, preferably using non-metallic tools to prevent discoloration.
• Collected latex is sun-dried or artificially dried at 50–55°C, then powdered and stored in airtight containers.
• Papain is used in medicine (digestive aid, ulcer treatment), food industry (meat tenderizer, beer clarification), textiles, cosmetics, and other industrial applications.
• Factors affecting papain yield include fruit size, maturity, and varietal characteristics; potassium metabisulphite may be added to improve quality and shelf life.

• Papaya is susceptible to several diseases, notably collar-rot, mosaic virus, and leaf curl virus, especially in poorly drained or virus-prone areas.
• Good field sanitation, use of disease-free seeds, and resistant varieties are key preventive measures.
• Regular weeding and removal of infected plants help reduce disease incidence.
• Common pests include fruit flies, aphids, and red spider mites; integrated pest management strategies are recommended.
• Windbreaks and proper irrigation management also contribute to reducing pest and disease pressure.

• Banana (Musa spp.) is a major fruit crop and staple food in tropical regions.
• Origin: South East Asia; called ‘Apple of Paradise’.
• Main producing states: Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar.
• Edible bananas are mostly hybrids of M. acuminata and M. balbisiana.
• Fruits develop by parthenocarpy (without fertilization).

• Deep, well-drained soils rich in organic matter are ideal.
• Optimum soil pH: 5.5–8.0.
• Soil depth: At least 1 meter.

Climate:

• Prefers humid tropical climate.
• Temperature range: 10°C to 40°C (optimum ~23°C).
• Altitude: Up to 1500 m above mean sea level.
• Rainfall: Minimum 100 mm/month is beneficial.
• High wind velocity (>80 m/hr) can damage plants.

• Wet land: Feb–Apr (Poovan, Rasthali, Monthan), Apr–May (Nendran, Robusta).
• Garden land: Jan–Feb, Nov–Dec.
• Padugai land: Jan–Feb, Aug–Sep.
• Hill banana: Apr–May (lower Palani hills), Jun–Aug (Sirumalai).

Propagation Methods:

• By suckers: Sword suckers (vigorous, early bearing) and water suckers (less vigorous).
• Average sucker weight: 1.5–2 kg.
• Micropropagation (tissue culture) for rapid multiplication.

• Trim roots and decayed corm portions; cut pseudostem to 20 cm above corm.
• For wilt-prone varieties, dip corm in 0.1% carbendazim for 5 min.
• Pralinage: Dip corm in clay slurry and sprinkle with 40 g carbofuran 3G per sucker to control nematodes.
• Alternative: Dip in 0.75% monocrotophos, shade dry 24 hours before planting.

Field Preparation:

• Deep ploughing and leveling of land.
• Dig pits (45 cm x 45 cm x 45 cm); refill with topsoil, 10 kg FYM, 250 g neem cake, 50 g lindane 1.3%.

• Garden land: 1.8 x 1.8 m (3086 plants/ha) or 1.5 x 1.5 m (4444 plants/ha).
• Wet land: 2.1 x 2.1 m (2267 plants/ha).
• Hill: 3.6 x 3.6 m (750 plants/ha).
• High density: 3 suckers/pit at 1.8 x 3.6 m (4600 plants/ha).

• Immediate irrigation after planting; life irrigation on 4th day.
• Subsequent irrigation: Weekly (garden land), every 10–15 days (wetland).
• Drip irrigation: 15 L/plant/day (planting–4th month), 20 L/plant/day (5th month–shooting), 25 L/plant/day (shooting–15 days before harvest).

• Apply N, P, K as per land type and variety (see table below).
• Use neem-coated urea for N application.
• Apply N & K in 3 splits (3rd, 5th, 7th month); P at 3rd month.
• For tissue culture plants, apply 50% extra fertilizer at 2nd, 4th, 6th, 8th month.
• Biofertilizers: Azospirillum and Phosphobacteria (20 g each at planting and 5th month).

• Apply 25 L water/plant/day with 200:30:300 g N:P2O5:K2O/plant using water-soluble fertilizers.
• For cost-saving, use 30% recommended N & K via fertigation; full P as basal at 2nd month.

Micronutrients:

• Spray ZnSO4 (0.5%), FeSO4 (0.2%), CuSO4 (0.2%), H3BO3 (0.1%) at 3, 5, 7 months after planting.

• Bi-monthly digging and earthing-up.
• Desuckering: Remove side suckers monthly.
• Remove and burn dry/dead leaves.
• Remove male flower a week after last hand opens.
• Propping: Support bunches with bamboo or casuarina poles to prevent wind damage.

• Spray 2,4-D at 25 ppm after last hand opens to improve bunch grade and reduce seediness (Poovan).
• Spray CCC (1000 ppm) at 4th and 6th month to enhance yield.
• Spray plantozyme (2 ml/L) at 6th and 8th month for higher yield.
• Cover bunches with transparent polyethylene sleeves (2–4% ventilation) after last hand opens.

• Suitable intercrops: Leguminous vegetables, beetroot, elephant foot yam, sunhemp.
• Incorporate sunhemp at 45 days to reduce nematode build-up.
• Avoid cucurbitaceous vegetables as intercrops.

• Definition and scope of agriculture and horticulture.
• Importance of sustainable crop production.
• Role of soil management in crop yield.
• Overview of pest and disease management.

• Soil properties affecting plant growth: texture, structure, pH.
• Soil fertility and nutrient management.
• Techniques for soil conservation and erosion control.
• Use of organic and inorganic fertilizers.

• Selection of crop varieties for different agro-climatic zones.
• Crop rotation and intercropping benefits.
• Water management: irrigation methods and scheduling.
• Harvesting and post-harvest handling practices.

• Common pests and diseases in major crops.
• Principles of integrated pest management (IPM).
• Cultural, biological, and chemical control methods.
• Use of resistant varieties and quarantine measures.

• Role of forestry in environmental sustainability and agroforestry systems.
• Basic concepts of animal husbandry and livestock management.
• Common animal diseases and their control.
• Importance of veterinary care in farm productivity.

• Agronomy is the science and technology of producing and using plants for food, fuel, fiber, and land reclamation.
• It integrates principles from biology, chemistry, ecology, earth science, and genetics.
• Agronomy focuses on improving crop yield and sustainable land use.

• Encompasses crop production, soil management, and environmental conservation.
• Essential for food security and sustainable agriculture.
• Addresses challenges like soil fertility, water management, and pest control.

• Increase crop productivity and quality.
• Optimize use of natural resources (soil, water, nutrients).
• Develop sustainable and profitable farming systems.
• Minimize environmental impact of agricultural practices.

• Crop Science: Study of crop growth, development, and management.
• Soil Science: Focus on soil properties, fertility, and conservation.
• Weed Science: Management of unwanted plants in crop fields.
• Agro-meteorology: Study of weather and climate impacts on crops.

• Soil preparation: Ploughing, harrowing, and leveling.
• Sowing methods: Broadcasting, drilling, transplanting.
• Water management: Irrigation and drainage techniques.
• Fertilizer application: Organic and inorganic sources.
• Pest and weed management: Integrated approaches.

• Monocropping: Cultivation of a single crop species.
• Mixed cropping: Growing two or more crops simultaneously.
• Intercropping: Cultivation of different crops in proximity.
• Crop rotation: Sequential cultivation of different crops on the same land.

• Agronomy is central to sustainable crop production and resource management.
• It integrates multiple scientific disciplines for efficient farming.
• Knowledge of agronomy is vital for agricultural professionals and students.