Tag: Vegetable Crops

• Harvesting: Gathering mature crops from the field.
• Post-harvest handling: Operations after harvest to maintain quality and reduce losses.
• Proper techniques are essential for quality, shelf-life, and profitability.

• Maturity: Stage when a crop is ready for harvest.
• Maturity indices: Observable signs indicating readiness for harvest.
• Indices include color, size, shape, texture, weight, and composition.

• Physiological maturity: Crop has completed development; ripening begins.
• Commercial maturity: Harvest stage based on market or processing needs.
• Harvest timing may differ based on intended use.

1. Visual method: Color, size, shape, abscission zones.
2. Feel method: Firmness, crispness, texture by touch.
3. Chemical analysis: Sugar, acid, starch content.
4. Physical means: Pressure tester, specific gravity.
5. Computation method: Days from planting or flowering to harvest.

• Inspect fields for crop readiness and remove obstructions.
• Prepare harvesting tools and materials.
• Construct temporary sheds for harvested produce.
• Avoid exposing harvested crops to sunlight.

• Use appropriate tools: scissors, pruning shears, knives.
• Proper tools reduce damage and maintain quality.

• Harvest at optimal time of day (e.g., morning or late afternoon).
• Harvest at proper maturity for intended use.
• Avoid sun exposure to prevent wilting and sunscald.
• Handle produce gently to prevent mechanical injury.
• Avoid deep piling to prevent crushing and heat buildup.

• Trimming and cleaning: Remove damaged or diseased parts.
• Sorting and grading: Classify by size, shape, color, and quality.
• Drying and curing: For tubers and bulbs to heal wounds.
• Proper storage: Maintain suitable temperature and humidity.

• Mechanical injuries: Cuts, abrasions, bruises during harvest/handling.
• Physiological losses: Yellowing, wilting, sprouting, toughening.
• Both types reduce quality and market value.

• Cleaning removes soil, dirt, and residues.
• Wiping with a soft cloth is preferred for some vegetables.
• Trimming removes undesirable, damaged, or diseased parts.
• Improves appearance and reduces transport costs.

• Sorting: Grouping by industry or consumer standards.
• Grading: Classifying by color, size, shape, maturity, defects.
• Grades: Fancy, No. 1, 2, 3, 4, or off-grade.
• Honest grading enhances market value and reputation.

• Packing: Placing produce in suitable containers for transport/storage.
• Use crates (wooden/plastic) with liners to prevent injury.
• Do not mix different grades in one container.
• Proper packing reduces losses and maintains quality.

• Curing: Exposing tubers/roots to warm, humid conditions to heal wounds.
• Recommended for potatoes, sweet potatoes, onions (15–19°C, high RH).
• Storage: Delays sale/distribution; controls supply and stabilizes price.
• Not all vegetables are suitable for long-term storage.

• Transport from farm to market must minimize damage.
• Avoid throwing, trampling, or overloading containers.
• Proper loading preserves quality and reduces losses.

• Technological: Decay, yellowing, wilting, rotting, sprouting.
• Mechanical: Cuts, punctures, cracks, abrasions from poor handling.
• Non-technological: Lack of storage, transport, adverse weather, market demand.
• Microbial decay often follows mechanical or physiological damage.

• Marketing: Transfer of goods from producer to consumer.
• Types: Local market, nearby town market, wider regional/national markets.
• Freshness is crucial for leafy and perishable vegetables.

1. Retailing directly to consumers: Farmer sells in local markets.
2. Selling to middlemen/wholesalers: Middlemen harvest and market crops.
3. Selling at the farm: Direct negotiation with buyers.
4. Selling through contracting companies: Pre-agreed contracts specify terms.
5. Selling through cooperatives: Collective marketing for better returns.

• Farm records: Written statements of facts and figures for management.
• Farm accounts: Financial statements tracking income and expenses.
• Essential for monitoring financial status and decision-making.

• Fixed costs: Incurred regardless of production (e.g., land tax, equipment depreciation).
• Variable costs: Change with production (e.g., seeds, fertilizers, labor).
• Cash costs: Actual money spent (e.g., hired labor, inputs).
• Non-cash costs: Family labor, own capital interest.

• Gross income = Quantity produced × Price per unit.
• Total cost = Fixed costs + Variable costs.
• Net income = Gross income – Total cost.

• Harvest at correct maturity using appropriate indices.
• Handle produce gently to avoid mechanical damage.
• Sort, grade, and pack properly for market requirements.
• Use suitable storage and transport methods to minimize losses.
• Maintain accurate records for better farm management.

• Fresh vegetables are highly perishable due to active senescence processes.
• Post-harvest management includes all activities from harvest to consumption.
• Main goal: minimize losses and maintain quality and nutritional value.
• Key activities: harvesting, handling, storage, processing, packaging, transport, and marketing.

• Understand techniques to reduce post-harvest losses in vegetables.
• Identify causes and control measures for post-harvest losses.
• Recognize marketing channels and associated losses.
• Learn various post-harvest management techniques.

• Maintains quality and extends shelf life of vegetables.
• Reduces food losses, poverty, and food insecurity.
• Improves market share and competitiveness for smallholders.
• Enhances human nutrition and health.
• Reducing losses is often easier than increasing yield.

• Improper harvesting (immature, over-mature produce).
• Faulty post-harvest practices and poor handling.
• Inadequate sorting, grading, and storage conditions.
• Improper packaging and delayed transport.
• Biological (pests, diseases), chemical, mechanical, physical, and physiological factors.

• Biological: Pests, diseases, microbial spoilage.
• Chemical: Contamination, off-flavors from pathogens or chemicals.
• Mechanical: Injuries, bruises, cuts during handling.
• Physical: Water loss, temperature extremes.
• Physiological: Sprouting, rooting, senescence, respiration changes.

• Farmers → Wholesalers → Retailers → Consumers
• Farmers → Cooperatives → Retailers/Consumers
• Farmers → Pre-harvest Contractors → Wholesalers → Retailers → Consumers
• Farmers → Local Collectors → Wholesalers → Retailers → Consumers
• Direct marketing: Farmers → Consumers

• Farm: Harvesting and field handling.
• Pack-house: Cleaning, sorting, sanitizing, packaging, cooling, storage.
• Transport: Loading, unloading, stacking, protection.
• Market: Re-sorting, re-packing, storage.
• Processing: Drying, sauce production, fermentation.

1. Harvesting
2. Reception
3. Pre-cooling
4. Selection, Cleaning & Disinfection
5. Drying
6. Grading
7. Other Treatments
8. Packing & Packaging
9. Storage
10. Transport

• Quality cannot be improved after harvest; harvest at optimum maturity.
• Harvesting time depends on intended use and market requirements.
• Harvest during cooler parts of the day to reduce heat load.
• Avoid harvesting during rain; if unavoidable, wash and dry before packaging.

• Days from fruit set
• Visual indicators (color, shape, external appearance)
• Texture and firmness
• Specific gravity, starch content, soluble solids
• Sugar-acid ratio, oil content, odor

• Technique for reducing water loss in hardy vegetables (e.g., onion, garlic, sweet potato).
• Involves drying under shade to heal wounds and toughen outer layers.
• Prevents decay and moisture loss during storage.

• Removes dust, dirt, and pathogens from produce surface.
• Methods: dry dusting, wet washing with clean water and mild detergent (0.1%).
• Washing duration: 3–5 minutes at room temperature (~27°C).

• Sorting: Removal of diseased, damaged, or deformed produce.
• Grading: Categorization by size, weight, color, maturity, and quality.
• Improves market value and reduces spread of infection.

• Protects produce from physical damage and contamination.
• Should be cost-effective, easy to handle, and suitable for transport.
• Reduces losses during marketing and storage.
• Materials: cartons, crates, baskets, plastic containers, etc.

• Different vegetables require specific storage conditions.
• Starchy vegetables: store at 15.5–21.1°C in dry locations.
• Most others: store at refrigerator temperatures (0–5°C).
• Keep away from ethylene-producing fruits to prevent premature ripening.

• Temperature is critical for extending shelf life and reducing spoilage.
• Improper temperature causes chilling or heat injuries.
• Optimal temperature inhibits pathogen growth and delays senescence.

• Vegetables have varying respiration rates affecting shelf life.
• High respiration rate: shorter shelf life (e.g., asparagus, mushrooms).
• Low respiration rate: longer shelf life (e.g., onions, potatoes).

• Transport is a major factor in post-harvest losses.
• Produce should be transported quickly and efficiently.
• Proper packaging and loading are essential to minimize damage.
• Use refrigerated vehicles for long distances when possible.

• Refrigerated and non-refrigerated vehicles for highways.
• Containers for air, rail, and sea transport.
• Pallets for bulk handling.
• Manual transport: carts, wheelbarrows, animal-drawn vehicles for short distances.

• Post-harvest losses in vegetables can reach 20–50% between harvest and retail.
• Losses increase with more intermediaries in the marketing chain.
• Proper post-harvest technologies and timely operations minimize losses.
• Focus on harvesting at optimum maturity, cleaning, sorting, grading, packaging, storage, and transport.

• Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) is affected by several fungal and viral diseases.
• Major diseases: Powdery mildew, Fusarium wilt, Alternaria leaf spot, Yellow vein mosaic.
• Effective management requires knowledge of pathogens, symptoms, and control measures.

• White or grayish powdery growth on upper leaf surfaces, later covering entire leaf.
• Lower leaf surfaces may also be infected.
• Affected leaves dry and fall prematurely, reducing yield.

Disease Cycle:

• Overwinters as dormant mycelium or cleistothecia on infected leaves.
• Secondary spread by wind-borne conidia.
• Favored by 60–80% relative humidity and dry conditions.

Management:

• Spray fungicides: wettable sulphur (0.25%), dinocap (0.1%), carbendazim (0.1%), hexaconazole (0.05%), or difenoconazole (0.05%).
• Repeat sprays at 10–14 day intervals.
• Biocontrol: Ampelomyces quisqualis, Trichoderma spp., Bacillus subtilis.
• Use azadirachtin (0.03% EC) as needed.

• Yellowing, stunting, wilting, and rolling of leaves.
• Dark brown vascular discoloration in stems.
• Severe cases: stem blackening and plant death.

Etiology:

• Produces hyaline mycelium, microconidia (single/two-celled), macroconidia (3–4 septa), and chlamydospores.

Disease Cycle:

• Survives as chlamydospores in soil and infected seeds.
• Optimum temperature for growth: 25°C; disease develops at 22–28°C.

Management:

• Use healthy, treated seed (carbendazim 0.2%).
• Practice crop rotation and soil solarization.
• Remove and destroy affected plants.
• Grow resistant varieties: CS-3232, CS-8899, IS-6653, IS-7194, Pusa Makhameli, Pusa Sawani.

• Brown leaf spots with pale margins and yellow halos.
• Lesions enlarge, show concentric rings, and coalesce.
• Severe infection causes leaf drying and defoliation.

Etiology:

• Produces cylindrical conidiophores and brown, muriform conidia with transverse and longitudinal septa.

Disease Cycle:

• Survives in infected plant debris, weed hosts, and seeds.
• Secondary spread by wind-borne conidia.

Management:

• Remove and destroy infected debris and weeds.
• Seed treatment with Thiram (6 g/kg).
• Spray Mancozeb (0.2%) after disease appearance.

• Vein yellowing and thickening, forming a network pattern.
• Leaves become chlorotic and yellow under severe infection.
• Plants are stunted with small, pale fruits.

Disease Cycle:

• Transmitted by whitefly (Bemisia tabaci) in a persistent manner.
• Wild and cultivated plants act as inoculum sources.
• Favored by dry, hot weather with low rainfall.

Management:

• Destroy wild hosts and avoid mixed cropping with pumpkin.
• Adjust sowing dates to avoid peak whitefly populations.
• Remove infected plants up to 55 days after sowing.
• Grow resistant cultivars: Punjab Padmini, Punjab-8, Prabhani Kranti, Hissar Unnat.
• Spray systemic insecticides (cypermethrin, deltamethrin, triazophos) to control vectors.

• Use disease-free, treated seeds and resistant varieties.
• Practice crop rotation, field sanitation, and timely removal of infected plants.
• Apply recommended fungicides and insecticides judiciously.
• Adopt biological control agents where feasible.
• Monitor fields regularly for early detection and management.

• Cabbage is susceptible to several economically important fungal diseases.
• Fungal pathogens affect yield and quality.
• Early identification and management are crucial for disease control.
• Integrated approaches are recommended for sustainable management.

• Pathogen: Rhizoctonia solani.
• Symptoms: Stem constriction at base, stunted growth, seedlings may break at ground level.
• Favored by mechanical injury and wet conditions.
• Management: Use certified disease-free transplants, avoid injury, ensure good drainage.

• Pathogen: Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. conglutinans.
• Symptoms: Leaf yellowing, wilting, stunted growth, twisted stems, unilateral midrib curvature.
• Soil-borne and persists for years.
• Management: Grow resistant varieties, crop rotation, use disease-free seed.

• Pathogen: Leptosphaeria maculans (Phoma lingam).
• Symptoms: Light brown stem lesions with purplish margins, black dots (pycnidia), cankering at base.
• Seed and residue-borne.
• Management: Use disease-free seed, hot water seed treatment, crop rotation, sanitation.

• Pathogen: Alternaria brassicae, A. brassicicola.
• Symptoms: Circular brown to black spots with concentric rings and yellow halos.
• Seedborne and airborne spread.
• Management: Remove crop debris, seed treatment, crop rotation, fungicide application.

• Pathogen: Plasmodiophora brassicae (plasmodiophoromycete, not true fungus).
• Symptoms: Root galls, wilting, stunted and yellow leaves, premature bolting.
• Favored by acidic, moist soils.
• Management: Use clean seedbeds, long crop rotations, lime soil to raise pH, resistant varieties.

• Pathogens: Fusarium spp., Pythium spp., Rhizoctonia solani.
• Symptoms: Seedling collapse, wet rot at stem base, missing or wilted seedlings.
• Favored by high moisture and poor drainage.
• Management: Use sterilized soil, raised beds, good drainage, biocontrol agents.

• Pathogen: Hyaloperonospora brassicae (formerly Peronospora parasitica).
• Symptoms: Yellow patches on upper leaf surface, white fluffy growth below, leaf drop, black spots on curds.
• Favored by cool, moist conditions.
• Management: Resistant varieties, crop rotation, debris removal, avoid leaf wetting, fungicides.

• Pathogen: Erysiphe cruciferarum.
• Symptoms: White powdery growth on upper leaf surfaces, reduced vigor.
• Favored by dry, warm conditions.
• Management: Resistant varieties, fungicides, avoid excess nitrogen, reduce drought stress.

• Pathogen: Albugo candida (oomycete, not true fungus).
• Symptoms: White blisters on leaf undersides, yellow patches above, stem distortion, leaf galls.
• Favored by cool, moist weather.
• Management: Resistant varieties, crop rotation, fungicides.

• Pathogen: Mycosphaerella brassicicola.
• Symptoms: Grey leaf lesions with black dots in concentric rings, reduced growth, delayed harvest.
• Spread by seed and debris.
• Management: Hot water seed treatment, fungicides, remove infected plants and debris.

• Pathogens: Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, S. minor.
• Symptoms: Water-soaked lesions, fluffy white mycelium, black sclerotia inside stems.
• Favored by high humidity and dense canopy.
• Management: Improve air circulation, avoid injury, crop rotation, remove infected debris.

• Pathogen: Rhizoctonia solani.
• Symptoms: Tan or brown lesions on outer leaves, rapid head rot.
• Favored by wet, poorly drained soils.
• Management: Raised beds, proper fertilization, maintain plant health.

• Pathogen: Phytophthora megasperma.
• Symptoms: Leaf margin discoloration (red/purple), root and stem rot, plant wilting and death.
• Favored by poorly drained soils.
• Management: Improve drainage, crop rotation, soil treatments, fungicides.

• Use disease-free seed and resistant varieties.
• Practice crop rotation and field sanitation.
• Maintain proper drainage and avoid plant injury.
• Apply fungicides judiciously as needed.
• Monitor regularly for early detection and control.

• Brinjal (Solanum melongena) is affected by several major diseases.
• Diseases reduce yield and fruit quality significantly.
• Understanding pathogens and symptoms is crucial for effective management.

• Pathogen: Phytoplasma, localized in phloem sieve tubes.
• Symptoms: Small, yellow, soft leaves; shortened petioles and internodes; bushy appearance.
• Flowers, if formed, remain green; fruiting is rare and fruits are hard, necrotic, and mummified.
• Spread by leafhoppers (mainly Hishimonas phycitis); survives in weed hosts.

• Grow tolerant varieties: Pusa Purple Round, Pusa Purple Cluster, Arka Sheel.
• Destroy affected plants and eradicate solanaceous weeds.
• Spray methyl demeton (2 ml/L) or apply phorate granules to soil.
• Seed dip in tetracycline (10–50 ppm) to reduce infection.

• Pathogen: Ralstonia solanacearum, a Gram-negative, motile rod.
• Symptoms: Sudden wilting, leaf epinasty, yellowing, stunting, vascular browning, bacterial ooze from cut stems.
• Soil and seed borne; survives in plant debris, wild hosts, and weeds.
• Spread via irrigation water, infested soil, and contaminated tools.

• Favoured by high soil moisture and temperature.
• Resistant varieties: Pant Samrat, Arka Nidhi, Arka Neelakantha, Surya, BB 1, 44, 49.
• Crop rotation with non-solanaceous crops; green manuring with Brassica spp.
• Soil solarization (125 μm polyethylene, 8–10 weeks); biological control with Pseudomonas fluorescens, Bacillus spp.
• Seed and soil treatment with antagonistic P. fluorescens; seedling dip before transplanting.

• Pathogen: Phomopsis vexans (asexual stage), Diaporthe vexans (sexual stage).
• Attacks all growth stages; most destructive on fruits.
• Symptoms: Damping-off in nursery, collar rot, leaf spots with pycnidia, stem cankers, sunken fruit spots, soft rot, mummified fruits.
• Pathogen is seed-borne and survives in plant debris as mycelium and pycnidia.

• Disseminated by rain splash, irrigation water, tools, and insects.
• Favoured by high humidity, temperatures around 26°C, and wet weather.
• Management: Remove crop debris, crop rotation, use disease-free seed.
• Hot water seed treatment (50°C, 30 min); seed treatment with thiophanate methyl (1 g/kg).
• Spray thiophanate methyl or carbendazim (0.1%) at 20-day intervals.

• Pathogen: Cercospora melongenae and related species.
• Symptoms: Large, brown to grayish-brown circular or irregular leaf spots; coalescence leads to premature leaf drop and fruit rot.
• Fungus survives in soil debris and infected seeds.
• Favoured by high humidity, warm days, cool nights, and persistent dew.

• Destroy crop debris; practice crop rotation and use disease-free seeds.
• Maintain wider plant spacing to reduce humidity.
• Spray zineb (0.25%), carbendazim (0.1%), or thiophanate methyl (0.1%) at 10–14 day intervals after disease onset.

• Use resistant/tolerant varieties and certified disease-free seeds.
• Practice crop rotation, field sanitation, and weed management.
• Apply chemical and biological controls judiciously.
• Monitor environmental conditions and implement timely interventions.