Tag: vegetable science

• Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) is a major solanaceous vegetable crop.
• Native to the Peruvian-Mexican region; introduced to India by Portuguese travelers.
• Valued for its nutritional content, including vitamins C, A, and B.
• Widely cultivated for fresh consumption and processing industries.

• Scientific name: Solanum lycopersicum
• Family: Solanaceae
• Chromosome number: 2n=24
• Annual, terrestrial plant with compound, alternately arranged leaves.
• Inflorescence is a cyme; flowers are yellow, perfect, and hypogynous.
• Fruit is a fleshy berry with 2–9 locules, usually red, orange, or yellow when ripe.

• Consumed as a vegetable and in processed forms (soup, ketchup, sauce, paste, juice).
• Rich in minerals: potassium, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, boron.
• Medicinal uses: promotes gastric secretion, acts as blood purifier, intestinal antiseptic.
• Tomato seed oil is used in salad dressings and margarine production.

• IARI, New Delhi: Pusa Early Dwarf, Pusa Ruby, Pusa Red Plum
• IIHR, Bangalore: Arka Saurabh, Arka Vikas, Arka Alok, Arka Vishal
• PAU, Ludhiana: Punjab Tropic, S-12, Punjab NR-7
• Private sector: Mangala, Sheetal, Vaishali, Rupali, Rashmi, Naveen

• Inflorescence: Cymes, flowers borne in clusters.
• Anthesis: Begins at 6 a.m., peaks 7–8 a.m.; anther dehiscence peaks 9–11 a.m.
• Stigma receptive 16 hours before anthesis, remains receptive 2–3 days after.
• Optimum pollination temperature: ~21°C; pollen viability: 7–10 days at 20°C, 70% RH.

• Warm-season crop; optimal temperature: 20–28°C.
• Cannot tolerate frost; temperatures below 15°C or above 39°C affect fruit set.
• Prefers well-drained, fertile, organic-rich soils with pH 6–7.
• Moderately tolerant to acidic soils (pH as low as 5.5); lime recommended for low pH.

• Propagated by seeds; nursery beds should be porous and fertile.
• Seeds sown in lines 5 cm apart, covered with sand, and watered gently.
• Dry grass cover for 3–5 days promotes early germination.
• Seedlings ready for transplanting at 25–30 days, 10–15 cm tall.

• Seed rate: 500–800 g/ha; ~300 seeds per gram.
• Seed treatment with IAA in talc powder enhances germination and vigor.
• Seeds may be treated with fungicides (e.g., captan or thiram) before sowing.

• Tomato is a heavy feeder of N, P, and K.
• Irrigated: 250:250:250 kg NPK/ha; Rainfed: 60:50:30 kg NPK/ha.
• Apply 35 t/ha FYM before planting.
• Micronutrients (Ca, B, Zn) applied via foliar sprays.

• Organic manures incorporated before final ploughing.
• N applied in 2–3 splits: after transplanting, at flowering, and at fruiting.
• Full P and K applied at planting, mixed into soil near rows.

• Seedlings transplanted at 3–4 weeks, 10–15 cm tall.
• Spacing: 60 × 30 cm; ridges preferred in heavy soils.
• Transplant in the evening; irrigate immediately after planting.

• First irrigation after transplanting, second on day 3, then at 7-day intervals.
• Weekly irrigation in hot season; irrigate during frost risk in winter.
• First weeding at 25 days, earthing up at 45 days after planting.
• Pre-plant herbicide application can aid weed control.

• Fruit borer, jassids, tobacco caterpillar, whitefly, root-knot nematodes.
• Control: Hand picking, crop rotation, insecticides, resistant varieties.

Major Diseases:

• Damping off, buckeye rot, Fusarium wilt, early blight, late blight, bacterial canker, leaf curl virus.

Physiological Disorders:

• Blossom end rot, cat face, fruit cracking.

• Plants supported with stakes to prevent lodging and fruit-soil contact.
• Roguing removes off-types and diseased plants at pre-flowering, flowering, and fruiting stages.
• Ensures genetic purity and seed quality.

• Fruits harvested at pink to red ripe stage for seed extraction.
• Hybrid seed yield: 40–50 kg/ha under optimal conditions.

• Crushed ripe fruits fermented until pulp separates from seeds.
• Seeds washed and sun-dried.

Alkali Treatment:

• Pulp treated with alkali, left overnight; seeds settle and are washed.

Acid Treatment:

• Pulp mixed with 5–6 ml/kg HCl, stirred, washed after 30 min, seeds dried.

• Seeds washed thoroughly to remove pulp and mucilage.
• Dried rapidly to 8% moisture on trays or cloth in sun.
• Graded using sieves (0.6–0.8 mm); larger seeds preferred for quality.

• Seeds treated with captan or thiram (2 g/kg seed) before storage.
• Packed in moisture-proof containers at 8–10% moisture content.
• Viability maintained for 25–30 months under proper storage.

• Requires separate male and female parent lines (ratio 1:5).
• Emasculation of female flowers at late bud stage; anthers removed.
• Pollen from male parent applied to stigma of emasculated flowers.
• Bagging prevents unwanted cross-pollination; tagged for identification.

Seed Standards:

• Botanical name: Solanum lycopersicum
• Family: Solanaceae
• Chromosome number: 2n=24
• Origin: Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia; domesticated in Mexico
• Edible part: Whole fruit (fleshy berry)
• Pollination: Mainly self-pollinated, hermaphrodite flowers

• First recorded in 1554, South America
• Spread from Mexico to Europe and Asia
• Introduced to India in 1828 by British
• Probable ancestor: Solanum lycopersicum var. cerasiformae (cherry tomato)
• Father of tomato research: Dr. C. M. Rick

• Global area: ~5.16 million ha; production: ~186 million tonnes (2023)
• Top producers: China, India, Turkey, USA, Egypt
• India: 0.88 million ha; 21 million tonnes; productivity: 23.8 t/ha
• Major Indian states: Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Gujarat
• Export hubs: Pune, Bangalore, Nasik, Amaravati

• Second most important vegetable globally after potato
• Rich in ascorbic acid (31 mg/100g), lycopene, carotenoids
• Used fresh and processed (soup, sauce, ketchup, puree, paste)
• Health benefits: antioxidant, anticancer, digestive aid
• Tomato seed oil content: ~24%

• Annual herb with tap root system (depth >50 cm)
• Stem: erect, solid, hairy, glandular; height 2–4 m
• Leaves: compound, pinnatifid, irregularly toothed
• Flowers: small, yellow, borne in raceme cymes
• Fruit: fleshy berry, 2–15 cm diameter, color varies (green, yellow, red)
• Seeds: numerous, kidney-shaped, hairy

• By growth habit: Determinate (bushy, self-topping, early), Indeterminate (erect, late, needs staking)
• By fruit shape: Round, cherry, pear, oblate, etc.
• By subgenus (Muller, 1940): Eulycopersicon (red, self-compatible), Eriolycopersicon (green, wild, self-incompatible)

• Selection criteria: yield, disease resistance, fruit quality, shelf life
• IARI: Pusa Rohini, Pusa Ruby, Pusa Sadabahar, Pusa Uphar
• IIHR: Arka Vikas, Arka Abha, Arka Rakshak (disease resistant)
• IIVR: Kashi Amrit, Kashi Hemant, Kashi Aman (ToLCV resistant)
• Hybrids: Pusa Hybrid 1, Arka Vardan, Arka Meghali
• Processing: Punjab Chhuhara, Roma, Pusa Gaurav
• Protected cultivation: Indeterminate types (e.g., Pusa Ruby, Arka Abha)

• Warm season, day-neutral crop
• Optimum temperature: 20–24°C (growth), 15–20°C (fruit set)
• Red color (lycopene) best at 21–24°C; reduced above 27°C
• Soil: well-drained sandy loam to clay loam, pH 6.0–7.0
• Moderately tolerant to acid soils (pH 5.5)

• Raised beds (15 cm), 3 m x 1 m, sandy loam with organic matter
• Seed rate: OPV 400–500 g/ha; Hybrid 125–175 g/ha
• Seed treatment: Captan/Thiram 2 g/kg
• Bed drenching: Captan or copper oxychloride
• Harden seedlings by reducing water before transplanting
• Transplant 25–30 day old seedlings with 5–6 true leaves

• Resistance to soil-borne diseases and pests
• Tolerance to abiotic stresses (drought, salinity, temperature)
• Increased yield and fruit quality

Examples:

• Brimato: Tomato scion on brinjal rootstock (bacterial wilt resistance)
• Pomato: Tomato scion on potato rootstock (dual harvest)

• Deep ploughing (20–30 cm), followed by harrowing for fine tilth
• Soil solarization (optional) for pest and disease control
• Spacing: Determinate 60 x 45 cm; Indeterminate 90 x 60 cm
• Transplanting: Kharif (July), Rabi (Oct–Nov), Summer (Feb–March)

• FYM: 350 q/ha; N:P:K for OPV: 120:80:100 kg/ha; Hybrid: 200:100:120 kg/ha
• Apply ½ N and all P, K, FYM at planting; rest N as top dressing
• Mulching (25 micron) increases yield by 45–50%
• Drip irrigation saves water (up to 42%) and increases yield (up to 60%)
• Water requirement: 60 L/kg (open field), 4–22 L/kg (greenhouse)

• Weeding: 2 hand hoeings + earthing up
• Pre-emergence herbicides: metribuzin, fluchloralin, pendimethalin
• Staking: improves yield and fruit quality in indeterminate types
• Training: single, two, or three stem systems
• Pruning: remove lateral suckers, maintain 2 stems, every 8–10 days

• Harvest at breaker or half-red stage; first harvest at 70–85 days after transplanting
• Grading by color, size, maturity (Super A, Super, Fancy, Commercial)
• Storage: 12–15°C, 85–90% RH; mature green: up to 30 days, ripe: 10 days
• Yield: OPV 200–350 q/ha; Hybrid 600–750 q/ha

• Causes: irregular irrigation, moisture stress, boron deficiency
• Control: regular irrigation, borax spray, resistant varieties

Blossom End Rot

• Caused by calcium deficiency
• Control: spray CaCl₂ 0.5%, balanced irrigation

Puffiness

• Causes: poor fertilization, high N, high temp
• Control: 4-CPA/CPPU spray, balanced nutrition

Sun Scald

• Due to fruit exposure; avoid excessive pruning in summer

Blotchy Ripening, Cat Face, Golden Flakes

• Due to nutrient imbalance, abnormal growth conditions

• Yellow sticky traps, Chrysoperla release, methyl demeton/dimethoate spray

Whitefly (Bemisia tabaci)

• Remove infected plants, sticky traps, carbofuran, dimethoate/malathion spray

Leaf Miner (Liriomyza trifolii)

• Destroy mined leaves, NSKE 5% spray

Pinworm (Tuta absoluta)

• Pheromone traps, healthy seedlings, neem/Flubendiamide/Indoxacarb spray

Fruit Borer (Helicoverpa armigera)

• Trap crops, pheromone traps, Trichogramma release, Bt spray

• Raised beds, seed treatment (Trichoderma/Thiram), copper oxychloride drench

Early Blight (Alternaria solani)

• Remove debris, crop rotation, Mancozeb spray

Late Blight (Phytophthora infestans)

• Remove infected plants, crop rotation, copper oxychloride/Bordeaux mixture

Fusarium Wilt (Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. lycopersici)

• Remove infected plants, Carbendazim drench, crop rotation

Bacterial Wilt (Ralstonia solanacearum)

• Crop rotation, resistant varieties (Arka Abha, Arka Rakshak)

Mosaic (TMV)

• Disease-free seed, crop rotation, trisodium phosphate seed soak, vector control

Leaf Curl (ToLCV)

• Sticky traps, barrier crops, Imidacloprid/Dimethoate spray

• Use high-yielding, disease-resistant varieties and hybrids
• Adopt proper nursery, land, and nutrient management
• Implement grafting and protected cultivation for stress-prone areas
• Practice regular irrigation, mulching, and weed control
• Monitor and manage pests and diseases using IPM
• Harvest and store fruits at optimal maturity and conditions

• Scientific name: Solanum lycopersicum
• Family: Solanaceae
• Originated in western South America; domesticated in Central America
• Chromosome number: 2n = 24 (corrected; not 26)
• India ranks 2nd globally in tomato production

• Botanically, tomato fruit is classified as a berry
• Rich in vitamins A, C, K and antioxidants like lycopene and lutein
• Consumption helps reduce risk of cancer, supports eye health, and regulates blood pressure

• Top producers: China, India, USA, Turkey, Egypt
• In India: Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat, Odisha, West Bengal, Chhattisgarh, Bihar, Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh

• Tomato is propagated by seeds or vegetative methods
• Vegetative propagation uses plant cuttings for true-to-type plants
• Seed propagation is most common in commercial cultivation

• Warm season crop; optimal temperature: 21–24°C
• Cannot tolerate frost or high humidity
• Prefers deep, well-drained sandy loam soils (15–20 cm depth)
• Requires low to moderate rainfall (approx. 194 mm during growing season)

• Land should be well-prepared, ridged, and free of weeds
• Seed sowing: June–July (autumn-winter), November (spring-summer), March–April (hills)
• Transplant seedlings at 75–90 x 45–60 cm spacing
• Use healthy seedlings (10–12 inches tall)

• Types: Cherry, Grape, Roma, Beefsteak, Heirloom, Tomatoes on the vine, Green tomatoes
• Popular varieties: Rashmi, Pusa Early Dwarf, Rupali, Sioux, Vaishali, Abhinav, Avishkar

• Requires 1–2 inches of water per week
• Drip irrigation preferred for transplanted tomatoes
• Sprinkler irrigation for direct-seeded crops (early stages)
• Furrow irrigation used after establishment

• Apply 20–25 t/ha well-rotted FYM/compost during land preparation
• Recommended fertilizer dose: 75:40:25 kg N:P2O5:K2O per ha
• Apply half N, full P, and half K as basal; remaining N and K as top dressing

• Practices: crop rotation, cultivation, sanitation, proper field preparation
• Pre-emergence herbicide: Metribuzin
• Post-emergence herbicide: Paraquat

• Circular lesions on fruit; centers turn tan; black spots on fruit

Management:

• Avoid sprinkler irrigation during fruit ripening
• Crop rotation with non-solanaceous crops

Black Mold Disease
Pathogen: Alternaria spp.
Symptoms:

• Black or brown lesions on ripe fruit surface

Management:

• Avoid wetting foliage; use fungicides if necessary

Colorado Potato Beetle
Nature: Insect pest
Symptoms:

• Feeding damage to foliage; black and yellow striped beetle visible

Management:

• Handpick adults and larvae; destroy in soapy water
• Use Bacillus thuringiensis for larvae control

Aphids
Nature: Insect pest
Symptoms:

• Yellowing and distortion of leaves

Management:

• Use tolerant varieties; apply neem oil

• First harvest: 60–70 days after transplanting (variety dependent)
• Harvest by twisting fruit by hand or mechanically
• Average yield: 20–25 t/ha; hybrids: up to 50–60 t/ha

• Store mature (yellow) tomatoes at 12–16°C (55–60°F)
• Cold storage life: 3–4 weeks
• Do not store below 4°C (40°F) to avoid chilling injury

• Tomato is a widely grown vegetable crop worldwide.
• Botanical name: Solanum lycopersicum; Family: Solanaceae; Chromosome number: 2n=24.
• Originated in the Andean region (Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia); domesticated in Mexico.
• Introduced to India by the British in 1828.

• Annual herb with a tap root system (up to 50 cm deep).
• Stem: Erect, solid, hairy, glandular; height 2–4 m.
• Leaves: Compound, pinnatifid, irregularly toothed margins.
• Flowers: Small, yellow, borne in racemes; perfect and hypogynous.
• Fruit: Fleshy berry, globular to oblate, 2–15 cm diameter; color varies from green to red/yellow/orange.
• Seeds: Numerous, kidney-shaped, hairy, light brown.

• Determinate: Bushy, self-topping, early maturity, staking not required.
• Indeterminate: Erect, continuous growth, late maturity, staking required.

Botanical Classification (Bailey, 1949):

• L. esculentum var. commune – Common round fruited
• L. esculentum var. grandifolium – Potato-leaved
• L. esculentum var. cerasiformae – Cherry tomato
• L. esculentum var. validum – Upright tomato
• L. esculentum var. pyriformae – Pear-shaped tomato

• Rich in vitamins (A, B, C), minerals (iron, phosphorus, calcium), amino acids, sugars, and dietary fiber.
• Ascorbic acid: 16–65 mg/100g; total sugars: ~2.5% in ripe fruit.
• Used fresh, in salads, pickles, preserves, and processed products (puree, paste, ketchup, sauce, juice).
• Contains lycopene (red pigment), carotenoids (yellow), and tomatine (alkaloid).

• India: ~8.8 lakh ha, 182 lakh tonnes, productivity ~20.7 t/ha.
• Leading states: Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Gujarat.
• Major export areas: Pune, Bangalore, Nasik, Amaravati.
• Main importers: Pakistan, UAE, Bangladesh, Nepal, Oman.

• High yield, disease resistance, fruit quality, shelf life, and TSS.

Popular Varieties:

• Pusa Ruby, Arka Vikas, Arka Meghali, Arka Saurabh, Arka Abha, Pusa Early Dwarf, PKM-1, Hisar Anmol, Pant Bahar.

Hybrids:

• Arka Rakshak, Arka Samrat, Arka Shreshta, Pusa Divya, Rashmi, Rupali, IAHS-88.2.

Special Traits:

• Resistant to ToLCV: Nandi, Sankranti, Vaibhav, Arka Rakshak.
• Resistant to bacterial wilt: Arka Alok, Arka Abha, Arka Shreshta.

• Warm season crop; optimum temperature: 20–24°C.
• Fruit set best at 15–20°C; lycopene synthesis optimal at 21–24°C.
• Grows in all soils; sandy loam preferred for early crop, heavy soils for high yield.
• Soil pH: 6.0–7.0; moderately tolerant to acidic soils (pH 5.5).

• Seed rate: OPV 300–400 g/ha; Hybrids 125–175 g/ha.
• Seed treatment: Captan/Thiram @ 2 g/kg seed.
• Nursery: Raised beds, protected with shade net, use sterilized cocopeat in protrays.
• Seedlings ready in 25–30 days; hardened before transplanting.
• Transplanting at 4–5 weeks; spacing: 60 × 45 cm.

• Apply FYM @ 25 t/ha and neem cake @ 100 kg/ha before last ploughing.
• Raised beds (120 cm width) for better drainage.
• Mulching (plastic or organic) conserves moisture, controls weeds, and regulates soil temperature.
• Plastic mulch (25 micron) can increase yield by 45–50%.

• Total water requirement: 600–700 mm/ha.
• Drip irrigation is efficient, saves water (up to 42%), and increases yield (up to 60%).
• Frequent irrigation essential, especially during flowering and fruiting.
• Balanced fertilization with NPK and micronutrients is crucial.

• Weeding: Two hand hoeings and earthing up recommended.
• Pre-emergence herbicides: Metribuzin (0.35 kg/ha), Pendimethalin (1.0 kg/ha).
• Staking and training improve fruit quality and reduce disease incidence (especially for indeterminate types).
• Pruning and desuckering maintain balance between vegetative growth and fruiting.

• Ethephon (200–500 mg/L): Flower induction, rooting.
• 2,4-D (2–5 mg/L): Increases fruit set, induces parthenocarpy.
• GA3 (50–100 mg/L): Promotes shoot elongation and yield.
• PCPA (50 mg/L): Enhances fruit set under adverse conditions.

• First harvest: 60–85 days after transplanting, depending on variety.
• Harvest stages: Immature green, mature green, breaker, pink, hard ripe, overripe.
• Grading based on color, size, and maturity; BIS grades: Super A, Super, Fancy, Commercial.
• Storage: 12–15°C, 85–90% RH; mature green fruits can be stored up to 30 days.

• Open field: 50 t/ha; Greenhouse: up to 150 t/ha (Singh et al., 2013).
• Yield depends on variety, management, and environmental conditions.

• Brown, sunken lesions at blossom end; due to calcium deficiency and irregular watering.

Fruit Cracking

• Radial/concentric cracks; caused by irregular irrigation, boron deficiency, genetic factors.

Sun Scald

• Blistered, water-soaked areas on exposed fruits; aggravated by defoliation and pruning.

Puffiness

• Partially filled, light fruits; due to poor fertilization, high temperature, or moisture.

Cat Face

• Distorted blossom end with ridges and furrows; linked to low temperature during flowering.

• Regular irrigation and balanced fertilization (especially calcium and boron).
• Avoid excessive pruning and staking during hot periods.
• Grow resistant/tolerant varieties for specific disorders.
• Apply foliar sprays: CaCl2 (0.5%), borax (0.3–0.4%) as needed.

• Use yellow sticky traps, pheromone traps, and biological control (Chrysoperla, Trichogramma).
• Spray recommended insecticides (e.g., dimethoate, malathion, neem formulations) as per guidelines.
• Practice crop rotation and destruction of infested plant parts.

• Use raised beds, seed treatment with Trichoderma/Thiram, drench with copper oxychloride.

Early Blight (Alternaria solani)

• Remove debris, crop rotation, spray Mancozeb 0.2%.

Late Blight (Phytophthora infestans)

• Remove affected plants, crop rotation, drench with copper oxychloride/Bordeaux mixture.

Fusarium Wilt (Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. lycopersici)

• Remove affected plants, spot drench with carbendazim, rotate with non-host crops.

Bacterial Wilt (Ralstonia solanacearum)

• Use resistant varieties, crop rotation with non-hosts.

Mosaic (TMV), Leaf Curl (ToLCV)

• Use disease-free seed, vector control (imidacloprid, dimethoate), crop rotation.

• Use resistant varieties and healthy seedlings.
• Practice crop rotation and field sanitation.
• Monitor pests/diseases regularly; use traps and biocontrol agents.
• Apply chemicals judiciously, following recommended doses and intervals.

• Tomato is a high-value crop with diverse uses and nutritional benefits.
• Proper variety selection, climate, soil, and cultural practices are key for high yield.
• Integrated management of pests, diseases, and physiological disorders ensures quality production.
• Knowledge of post-harvest handling and storage extends shelf life and marketability.